W.Scott  Thomas 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


THE 
THEORY    AND    PRACTICE 


OF 


HANDWRITING 


BOOKS  ON  VERTICAL  PENMANSHIP 

liY 

JOHN  JACKSON,  F.  E.  I.  S.,  M.  C.  P. 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  HANDWRITING    ....  $1.25 

VERTICALS.  SLOPING  WRITING .10 

NEW  STYLE  VERTICAL  WRITING  COPY  BOOKS,  PER  DOZ.  .96 

HARISON'S  VERTICAL  PENMANSHIP  PADS,              "  .96 


L^t9-u^\y^ 

f\  n  *.      v  A_. 


THE 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 


HANDWRITING 


A    PRACTICAL    MANUAL   FOR    THE 
GUIDANCE    OF    SCHOOL    BOARDS,    TEACHERS,    AND 

STUDENTS    OF    THE    ART 
WITH    DIAGRAMS    AND    ILLUSTRATIONS 


BY 


JOHN  JACKSON,  F.E.I. S.,  M.C.P. 

ITHOR  OF  'THE  SYSTEM  OF  UPRIGHT  PENMANSHIP  OR  HYGIENIC  HANDWRITING,' 

'  VERTICAL    7'S.  SLOPING    WRITING,'    '  HARISON'S  VERTICAL 
PENMANSHIP  PADS,'    ETC. 


REVISED   EDITION. 


NEW   YORK 
WILLIAM    BEVERLEY    HARISON 

1894. 

[All    rights    reserved] 


COPYRIGHT  1894 
BY  WILLIAM  BEVERLEY  HARISON 


EDUCATION  DEFT, 


PREFACE 


THE  distinguished  professor  of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of 
Vienna,  Dr.  Toldt,  has  declared  that  "  The  question  of  Instruc- 
"  tion  in  Writing  should  occupy  the  first  place,  as  the  teaching 
"  of  that  subject  is  attended  with  so  great  danger  to  Spinal 
"  curvature,  Breathing  and  digestive  Disturbances,  Myopia  or 
"  Shortsight."  And  the  no  less  distinguished  oculist,  Professor 
Dr.  Hermann  Cohn,  has  publicly  stated  that  "  Vertical  writing  is 
"  the  writing  of  the  future  " 

Realising  the  force  of  these  official  statements  the  Author  has 
the  more  confidence  in  submitting  to  the  Profession  and  Public  a 
manual  the  chief  object  of  which  is  to  afford  information  on  all 
the  vital  and  important  questions  that  modern  research  in  the 
Art  and  Science  of  Handwriting  has  brought  to  the  front. 
Hitherto  Caligraphy  has  been  considered  exclusively  as  an  art 
(witness  the  works  and  specimens  of  plain  and  ornamental  pen- 
manship extant  up  to  a  most  recent  date)  but  the  latest  investiga- 
tions (both  Medical  and  Educational)  exhibit  it  to  us  as  a  Science. 

Writing  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  principal  and  most  essential 
subjects  taught  in  our  Schools,  but  there  is  no  text-book  on  the 
question  which  professes  to  be  a  work  of  reference  and  certainly 
none  that  deals  "  in  extenso  "  with  the  topics  which  for  some  years 
past  have  so  deeply  agitated  Medical  (and  to  a  smaller  extent 
Educational)  circles  both  at  home  and  abroad.  A  glance  at  the 
list  in  Chapter  XIII.  will  show  how  popularly  and  superficially 
the  subject  of  Handwriting  has  been  generally  approached  and 
the  necessity  for  a  production  which  shall  give  side  by  side  the 
several  arguments  which  have  been  adduced  in  favour  of  and  in 
opposition  to  the  theories  propounded.  Such  vital  matters  as  the 
relation  of  writing  to  Hygiene  ;  the  substitution  of  Upright  Pen- 

580107 


viil  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

manship  for  sloping  writing  ;  the  universal  adoption  of  Headline 
Copy  Books  ;  the  position  of  the  Copy  Book  with  reference  to  the 
writer  : — these  and  other  topics  of  a  like  nature  have  received 
lengthy  treatment,  as  on  the  decision  in  each  case  serious  issues 
depend.  The  first  object  has  been  to  find  out  "  What  the 
writing"  is  "  we  ought  to  teach  and  the  second  how  it  ought 
to  be  written  and  taught  It  is  a  very  common  delusion 
that  "Anybody  can  write"  and  the  notion  is  most  prevalent 
amongst  Secondary  School  teachers  many  of  whom  give  the  sub- 
ject hardly  a  place  in  their  Routine  or  Curriculum.  It  is  an  equally 
deplorable  fact  that  hardly  anybody  does  write  either  as  he  might  or 
as  he  should,  and  yet  the  efficient  and  successful  teaching  of  writing 
in  a  school  is  frequently  the  most  potent  factor  in  its  success. 
With  parents  (who  constitute  the  public  so  far  as  schools  are  con- 
cerned) beautifully  written  Copy  books  and  carefully  written  Home 
Exercises  are  not  only  evidence  of  satisfactory  progress  but  they 
are  regarded  as  an  index  to  the  discipline  of  the  school,  the 
thoroughness  of  the  teaching,  the  neatness  and  precision  of  the 
general  work  and  to  the  Education  imparted.  Very  few  teachers 
appear  to  apprehend  or  rightly  value  both  the  extern  and  intern 
influence  which  writing  exerts  on  a  School.  Its  virtue  is  immense. 
Good  writing  in  the  classes  cultivates  the  eye,  hand,  and  judg- 
ment, promotes  habits  of  accuracy,  observation,  neatness  and 
good  taste,  conduces  to  good  order  discipline  and  method,  and  by 
contagion  infuses  a  salutary  stimulus  into  every  other  branch  of 
study  taken  up.  Some  one  has  said  that  it  is  better  to  lose  a 
delusion  than  to  find  a  truth,  therefore  if  the  following  pages  help 
to  enlighten  teachers  on  these  matters  assist  them  to  lose  a 
delusion  and  to  convince  them  that  the  Science  and  Art  of 
Writing  cannot  safely  be  ignored  or  neglected  any  longer  the 
hopes  of  the  writer  will  in  a  great  measure  be  realised. 

The  author's  thanks  are  specially  due,  and  are  herewith 
cordially  tendered,  to  Dr.  Emmanuel  Bayr,  Dr.  Paul  Schubert, 
and  Mr.  Noble  Smith,  F.R.C.S.  Ed.,  L.R.C.P.  Lond.,  &c.,  for 
their  unvarying  courtesy,  and  for  their  kindness  in  placing  both 
works  and  services  so  generously  at  his  disposal.  Contributions 
from  many  other  friends,  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent, 
are  also  gratefully  acknowledged. 

Revised  for  the  United  States.     New  York,  May,  1894. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I.  INTRODUCTORY 


II.  WRITING  IN  RELATION  TO  HYGIENE  .       .       .       .    .  10 

III.  UPRIGHT  OR  SLOPING  WRITING—  WHICH?     ...  26 

IV.  SIZE,  THICKNESS,  CONTINUITY,  SHAPE,  ETC.     .        .    .  4* 
V.  HEADLINE  OR  BLANK  COPY  BOOKS—  WHICH?       .       .  56 

VI.  DESKS,  BOOKS,  SLATES,  PENS,  INK     .....  73 

VII.  POSITIONS  OF  WRITER  BOOK  AND  PEN                         .  81 

VIII.  ANALYSIS  OF  ALPHABET  AND  WORDS        .       .       .    .  94 

IX.  METHODS,  AND  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  CLASS  TEACHING  .  103 

X.  HISTORY  AND  REVIVAL  OF  VERTICAL  WRITING  .  .  no 

XI.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  WITH  SHORT  DESCRIPTIVE  NOTICES        .  126 


X  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

APPENDICES 

PAGB 

I.  SPECIMENS  OF  HANDWRITING     ......  131 

II.  ESSAY  BY  DR.  SCHUBERT      .....       .    .  140 

III.  EXTRACTS     .       .       , 


INDEX       .......       .....  I59 


FIG.  i. 


FIG. 


MANUAL    OF    HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER   I 

WRITING    AS    IT    NOW    IS 

THERE  are  more  writers,  or  shall  we  say  scribblers,  in  the  world  at 
the  present  moment  than  at  any  previous  period  of  its  history. 
But  it  would  appjar  from  all  accounts  thd*t  as  the  exponents  of 
caligraphy  have  multiplied,  the  quality  of  the  writing  has  dete- 
riorated. 

To  fully  describe  and  depict  writing  as  it  is  the  wide  world 
over  in  our  civilised  age,  would  require  a  volume  of  itself.  Suffice 
it  in  this  chapter  to  furnish  an  amount  of  description,  testimony 
or  evidence  and  illustration,  as  shall  adequately  exhibit  the  existing 
condition  of  things  in  the  writing  world. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  art  of  penmanship  was 
comparatively  little  practised.  Education  being  in  a  sadly 
neglected  condition,  there  were  few  facilities  for  teaching  it. 
Schools  i.e.  good  schools—were  few  and  far  between,  trained 
teachers  were  unknown,  headline  copy  books  had  not  been 
dreamt  of— copy  slips  were  scarce  and  difficult  to  get,  and  teachers 
for  the  most  part  had  to  rely  solely  on  their  own  caligraphic  ability, 
whilst  as  a  natural  sequence  good  writers  remained  in  a  mourn- 
fully small  minority  and  the  numbers  of  bad  writers  yearly 
increased.  Gradually  however  as  people  woke  up  to  a  realisa- 
tion of  the  state  of  affairs  specially  with  reference  to  the  masses 
and  their  ignorance  of  "  Reading,  Writing  and  Counting,"  more 
attention  was  directed  to  these  subjects  and  the  headline  copy 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


vtas  opt  Of  tltfr  cnpovations  which  merged  into  life.    These  copy- 
c  books  bave^rown  angl  increased  to  an  alarming  extent  during  the 
"         foft^ysar$.t  .We'  say  .alarming,  for  the  wisdom  of  having  such  a 


variety  of  antagonistic  styles  is  much  to  be  questioned.  One  has 
merely  to  look  through  the  vast  number  of  (headline)  copy 
books  in  existence  to  be  struck  with  the*  anomalies  with  which 
they  abound.  Every  compiler  or  writer  and  there  is  a  material 
difference  between  the  two  —  of  a  series  of  copy  books  naturally 
thinks  and  advertises  his  own  peculiar  production  to  be  the  best. 
But  that  each  should  be  superior  to  all  the  others  is  impossible, 
and  which  amongst  them  is  entitled  to  lay  claim  to  superiority  it 
is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  determine. 

We  present  for  inspection  (Figs.  3  to  6)  specimens  of  eight  large 
hand  copies  and  eleven  small-hand  headlines  taken  from  some  of 
the  popular  series  of  copy  books  now  in  the  market.  Glancing 
at  the  selection  made  (p.  4)  who  would  not  be  bewildered  at 
the  contrasts  presented  ?  And  this  is  only  a  selection  ;  yet  it 
is  seen  that  in  no  one  respect  do  they  all  agree  save  in  the  most 
objectionable  respect  of  all  (as  we  shall  show  further  on)  viz. 
Slope.  They  are  without  exception  off  the  vertical  or  perpen- 
dicular, but  the  degrees  of  divergence  from  the  Upright,  or  the 
angles  of  Slope,  are  only  limited  by  the  number  of  specimens  and 
hardly  that.  With  regard  to  their  several  characteristics  it  will  be 
noted  that  generally  they  nearly  all  differ  in  the  fundamental 
principles  of  construction,  angle  of  slope,  and  style  :  some  are 
heavy,  stumpy  and  round,  others  light,  flowing  and  almost 
angular  :  some  very  large  others  minutely  small  :  some  nearly 
upright  others  nearly  horizontal  :  some  open  and  wide  almost 
square  in  their  curves  others  close  compact  and  oval  :  some  with 
plain  simple  capitals  others  with  elaborate  and  ornate  capitals  : 
some  commencing  with  an  extremely  large  and  heavy  hand  as  in 
the  \*  ord  "  Permutation  "  others  commencing  with  a  smaller  but 
still  heavier  hand  as  in  the  word  "  Whitsuntide." 

In  the  books  lying  before  us,  and  from  certain  of  which  these 
illustrations  are  severally  taken,  it  is  observed  that  some  grade  the 
letters  according  to  system  others  according  to  caprice  or  not  at 


WRITING    AS    IT    NOW    IS  3 

all  :  many  advance  by  small  steps  others  by  wide  and  long  grada- 
tions and  so  on,  no  two  series  possessing  any  features  in  com- 
mon. 

Now  if  Handwriting  can  be  reduced  to  a  rational  or  scientific 
system  this  infinite  diversity  is  not  only  undesirable  it  is  pernicious 
and  unsound.  For  granted  that  one  style  can  be  formulated  and 
projected  which  is  absolutely  superior  to  all  others  in  construction, 
angle,  &c.,  then  unless  that  style  be  universally  inculcated,  an 
unfortunate  section  of  the  community  is  being  taught  to  write  a 
style  which,  according  as  it  deviates  from  the  acknowledged 
standard,  is  to  that  extent  objectionable  and  inferior. 

And  this  hypothesis — viz.  of  a  standard  system  of  penmanship 
— is  not  chimerical,  it  is  logical  and  practical.  Whilst  however 
the  present  custom  obtains,  and  in  our  schools  every  teacher 
exercises  his  own  independent  and  uninstructed  mind,  teaching 
from  any  one  of  the  multifarious  headline  Copy  books  that  may 
strike  his  fancy  or  what  is  far  worse  from  his  own  peculiar  style 
and  the  black-board,  what  wonder  if  the  caligraphy  of  the  age  is 
the  laughing-stock  of  the  age  i  What  wonder  that  our  "  scrib- 
blers "  abound  in  their  countless  hosts  and  that  our  "  writers  " 
exist  only  in  their  isolated  units  by  contrast  !  In  the  absence  of 
any  harmony  or  uniformity  in  the  essential  elements  and  principles 
of  the  so-called  systems  of  writing  now  in  vogue  who  can  expect 
the  grand  result  to  be  anything  but  a  "  mixed  medley,"  a  promis- 
cuous jumble  of  caligraphic  contradictions  and  contortions  ? 

And  passing  from  the  schoolroom  where  such  an  anomalous 
and  chaotic  state  of  things  prevails  into  the  world  outside,  this  is 
exactly  what  meets  us.  We  can  only  describe  the  penmanship  of 
the  present  age  as  a  dreary  waste  of  slightly  variegated  illegibility 
relieved  here  and  there  at  long  intervals  by  welcome  exceptions  of 
readable  writing.  In  view  of  what  reaches  one  continually  by  the 
post  we  may  denounce  the  writing  that  obtains  now-a-days  as 
miserably  poor  and  painfully  illegible.  The  mistakes  that  are 
made,  the  money  that  is  lost,  the  time  that  is  wasted,  the  peace  of 
mind  that  is  disturbed,  the  annoyance  and  delays  that  are  caused 
by  undecipherable  sprawls  might  rnake  the  angels  weep,  and  not- 

B  2 


8  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

withstanding,  except  a  few  inarticulate  and  individual  grumblings, 
little  in  the  way  of  protest  is  made  against  what  every  one  admits 
to  be  a  public  and  national  disgrace.  Our  prevailing  handwriting 
may  claim  the  ambiguous  and  questionable  merit  that  it  can  be 
made  to  mean  anything  but  it  is  no  less  accurately  described  as 
Scribble  of  every  conceivable  Size,  Shape  and  Slope. 

The  Press,  the  Commercial  World,  and  Official  Circles  are 
happily  beginning  to  realise  the  position,  as  evidence  the  following 
extract  from  the  City  Press  (25th  Nov.  1891). 

"  How  is  it  that  of  late  years  the  art  of  caligraphy  has  declined 
"  amongst  us  to  an  almost  alarming  extent  ?  Not  so  long  since 
"  everyone—  save  geniuses,  who  were  allowed  a  free  hand  could 
"  write  clearly  and  legibly,  the  reading  of  correspondence  being  as 
"a  consequence  a  far  more  agreeable  occupation  than  it  un.ortu- 
"  nately  is  at  the  present  moment.  Now  it  is  quite  an  exception 
"  to  come  across  a  letter  that  even  with  a  certain  amount  of 
"  leniency  can  be  said  to  be  written  at  all  legibly  or  distinctly. 
"  Indeed,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  a  busy  man's  correspondence 
"  consists  of  hurried  scrawls  which  have  to  be  actually  spelled  out 
"  word  by  word.  Commercial  houses  are  already  beginning  to 
"  experience  a  difficulty  in  finding,  as  clerks,  young  fellows  who  can 
"  write  a  decent  hand.  Mr.  Tritton,  who  may  be  taken  as  a  typical 
"man  of  commerce,  told  a  Mansion  House  meeting  the  other  day 
"  that  fully  90  per  cent,  of  the  young  men  who  applied  to  him  for 
"situations  wrote  with  a  slovenliness  that  was  altogether  inexcu- 
"  sable.  The  public,  it  seems  to  me,  have  the  remedy  in  their  own 
"  hands  to  a  certain  extent.  If  they  follow  the  advice  of  Sir 
"  James  Whitehead,  and  put  on  one  side  for  future  consideration 
"  all  letters  which  cannot  be  deciphered  except  with  difficulty, 
"  their  correspondents,  without  a  doubt,  will  soon  realise  that  in 
"  writing  illegibly  they  only  injure  themselves.  The  result  will 
"  naturally  be  that  they  will  cease  to  pen  the  wretched  scrawls 
"  that  in  the  past  they  have  dignified  with  the  name  of  correspon- 
"  dence.  The  present  carelessness  in  the  matter  of  handwriting  is 
"  in  a  great  measure  the  fault  of  our  schoolmasters,  who,  I  have 
"  reason  to  believe,  no  longer  consider  caligraphy  as  one  of  the 


WRITING   AS   IT   NOW   IS  9 

"  subjects  that  their  pupils  should  be  taught.  Perhaps  they  will 
"alter  their  minds  now  that,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Tritton,  they 
"  learn  that  young  fellows  otherwise  eligible  often  lose  situations 
"  because  of  their  wretched  penmanship." 

Other  City  merchants  gave  similar  evidence  and  state  that  very 
often  they  have  to  throw  nineteen  out  of  every  twenty  applications 
into  the  waste  paper  basket. 

But  Great  Britain  is  not  alone  in  this  sad  dilemma.  The 
"Detroit  Free  Press"  declared  a  short  time  ago  that  not  one 
person  in  a  hundred  wrote  a  legible  signature  and  the  same 
authority  informed  its  readers  that  Prince  Bismark  was  so  impressed 
with  the  necessity  for  a  reform  that  he  fulminated  an  order  that  all 
persons  should  write  their  names  legibly.  The  demand  for  a 
sweeping  reformation  in  regard  to  our  handwriting  can  no  longer 
be  disregarded.  Of  course  the  cry  has  ever  been  "  What  is  the 
"  cause  of  this  deterioration  "  ?  "  Where  is  the  root  of  the  malady  "? 
This  question  will  occupy  our  attention  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 
Meanwhile  our  ears  are  assailed  on  every  side  with  the  one 
trumpet-call  coming  alike  from  every  class  and  department  of  the 
community  "  Give  us  Good  Writers  for  we  cannot  get  them,  and 
"  cannot  do  without  them." 

It  may  be  accepted  then  as  a  demonstrated  fact  that  the 
writing  of  the  age  is  unsatisfactory,  illegible  and  essentially  bad. 

That  there  is  abundant  need  for  reform  amongst  our  teachers 
as  to  the  teaching  of  writing  no  one  can  deny.  I  would  refer  the 
reader  to  Appendix  I.  (fig.  6r),  page  141.  The  three  books  there 
illustrated  are  typical  of  hundreds  of  cases  where  children  in  the 
school  are  allowed  to  write  page  after  page  and  Book  after 
Book  of  such  pitiful  scrawl  without  a  solitary  mark  of  direction, 
correction  or  disapproval.  Can  such  teachers  have  the  slightest 
apprehension  or  conception  of  what  writing  really  is  or  ought  to 
be?  Did  they  ever  see  the  writing  at  all  or  look  at  a  single  line 
of  the  work  from  the  first  page  to  the  last  ? 

In  charity  we  must  answer  for  them  in  the  negative; 


10  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    II 

WRITING    IN    RELATION    TO    HYGIENE 

THIS  is  a  subject  that  has  seldom  if  ever  been  referred  to,  much 
less  treated  and  discussed  in  Works  on  Education  or  in  Manuals 
of  Handwriting. 

The  idea  itself  is  only  in  its  infancy  and  with  one  exception 
has  been  confined  to  medical  essays  and  excerpts.  Nevertheless 
wonderful  progress  has  been  made  during  the  past  two  or  three 
years  ;  and  as  medical  men  and  teachers  are  the  sole  authorities  on 
this  subject,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  confine  the  arguments  within 
the  limits  of  their  united  evidence. 

On  the  general  question  a  paper  was  read  by  the  author  of 
these  pages  at  the  Seventh  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  and 
Demography,  London,  August  1891,  followed  by  a  resolution,  the 
substance  and  text  of  which  are  reproduced  here  as  fairly  covering 
the  ground  to  be  explored.  On  the  particular  aspects  of  the  ques- 
tion as  relating  to  Spinal  Curvature  and  Shortsight  a  report  by  a 
Commission  of  Specialists  was  presented  to  the  Imperial  and 
Royal  Supreme  Council  of  Health  Vienna  February  1891.  The 
substance  of  this  Report  will  afford  abundant  proof  of  the  relation 
of  writing  to  health  and  will  conclusively  demonstrate  the  positions 
taken  up. 

Writing  is  almost  as  important  as  speaking,  there  being  no 
occupation  or  rank  in  life  into  which  as  a  potent  factor  and  as  an 
energising  influence  writing  does  not  enter.  In  the  diary  of  the 
private  individual,  the  correspondence  of  everyday  life,  the  records 
of  business-  transactions,  the  literature  of  the  author,  the  briefs  of 
the  barrister  or  the  manuscripts  of  the  Theologian  and  Ecclesiastic 
writing  is  equally  essential  and  universal.  Not  only  is  it  thus  all 


WRITING   IN    RELATION   TO   HYGIENE  II 

pervasive  throughout  civilised  society  it  rises  to  even  greater  pro- 
minence and  significance  in  the  case  of  the  hundreds  of  thousands 
who  as  secretaries,  copyists  or  clerks  follow  writing  as  their  profes- 
sion or  business,  and  derive  from  it  their  sole  means  of  subsistence. 

Such  persons  are  occupied  the  year  round,  for  from  8  to  16 
hours  daily,  exclusively  in  clerical  work.  It  is  impossible  to 
exaggerate  the  importance  of  an  art  which  is  pre-eminently  the 
vital  principle  in  the  machinery  of  the  Law,  the  Civil  Service, 
Commerce,  Science  and  individual  as  well  as  international 
communication.  If  we  look  into  the  origin  and  development  of 
handwriting  we  find  it  had  its  birth  in  an  age  of  semi  barbarism ; 
that  at  first  it  consisted  of  the  most  imperfect  pictorial  representa- 
tions, which  gradually  merged  into  a  still  crude  hieroglyphic  as  the 
basis  of  an  incipient  alphabet.  Subsequently  this  alphabet  was 
improved  and  modified,  and  at  last  developed  into  what  may  be 
termed  a  phonetic  one,  although  very  defective,  the  characters 
having  little  scientific  meaning  or  relationship.  From  the  ornate 
and  laboured  style  of  the  mediaeval  period  the  present  Italian 
style  has  been  evolved,  and  if  we  carefully  trace  this  evolution 
through  its  manifold  stages  and  variations,  we  discover  that  it  and 
they  have  all  been  purely  responsive  to  exclusively  caligraphic  or 
so-called  artistic  demands.  Pursuing  the  investigation  a  step 
further,  the  fact  is  revealed  that  these  caligraphic  and  artistic 
demands  have  been  dictated  and  controlled,  not  by  logical  or 
scientific  principles,  but  by  capricious  and  often  conflicting 
theories. 

The  writing,  and  not  the  writer,  has  always  been  the  supreme 
consideration  in  the  growth  of  the  art  of  penmanship.  A  certain 
style  of  writing  was  deemed  or  decreed  to  be  essential,  the  idea  of 
protest  was  never  entertained,  and  our  ancestors  had  to  bend 
cringe  and  twist  under  the  system  of  bondage  thus  established. 
As  to  Hygienic  principles  these  have  never  been  associated  even 
in  a  remote  degree  with  the  history  of  slanting  writing  that  for 
some  two  hundred  years  has  flourished  amongst  us. 

Indeed  physiological  requirements  have  not  been  recognised 
much  less  urged  until  within  the  past  few  years,  and  even  at  the 


12  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

present  day  but  few  teachers  would  be  found  to  spontaneously 
admit  any  possible  connection  between  Hygiene  and  Handwriting 
That  these  Hygienic  principles  should  be  an  integral  part  of  any 
system  of  penmanship  whatever,  there  cannot  be  the  shadow  of  a 
doubt,  but  it  may  be  emphatically  stated  that  the  existing  style  of 
oblique  or  slant  writing  has  been  elaborated  not  only  indepen- 
dently, but  in  spite  of  every  physiological  demand.  Awkward 
and  painful  postures  have  always  accompanied  the  practice  of 
sloping  writing.  It  is  more  than  surprising  that  such  injurious 
distortions  should  ever  have  been  for  one  moment  tolerated,  but 
the  power  or  dominance  of  fashion  over  our  minds  is  incredibly 
imperious  and  overwhelming.  It  is  not  the  less  remarkable  that 
when  the  subject  of  school  postures  first  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  medical  faculty  the  real  root  of  the  malady  was  never  for  one 
moment  suspected  and  that  it  remained  for  so  long  a  time  undis- 
covered. Possibly  this  was  after  all  not  unnatural  as  the  idea  of  a 
flaw  or  defect  in  the  writing  itself  would  be  the  last  to  strike  the 
mind  of  the  enquirer. 

Hence  the  various  and  contradictory  charges  that  have  been 
made.  First,  the  Instruction  was  at  fault.  Teachers  were  in- 
different or  not  sufficiently  careful  to  inculcate  correct  position. 
It  only  needed  strict  attention  efficient  and  constant  supervision 
to  remedy  the  evil.  Time  and  experience  however  proved  the 
contrary,  for  unhealthy  postures  were  found  co-existent  with  the 
most  sedulous  care  and  perfect  instruction.  A  crusade  was  then 
inaugurated  against  Desks  and  Seats  -  and  not  before  time.  The 
former  were  too  sloping  or  otherwise,  too  high  or  too  low,  and 
furthermore  they  were  not  adjustable,  so  we  got  adjustable  desks 
and  broader  seats,  both  being  brought  to  a  state  of  almost  perfect 
Hygienic  and  mechanical  excellence.  Nevertheless  the  Bad 
Postures  survived  still. 

The  question  qf  Light  was  next  considered,  but  when  that  was 
set  right  the  positions  were  still  wrong  and  the  matter  remained 
in  abeyance  for  a  brief  space.  Last  of  all  attention  was  directed 
to  the  Writing  (the  Sloping  Writing)  itself,  and  it  is  cause  for  con- 
gratulation that  this  attack  was  made  ;  for  the  unanimous  opinion 


WRITING    IN    RELATION   TO    HYGIENE  13 

of  the  numerous  experts  engaged  in  the  investigation  is  that  the 
Slant  or  Slope  of  our  writing  is  the  undoubted  cause  of  the 
abnormal  and  injurious  postures  so  grievously  complained  of. 
As  will  appear  in  the  Sequel  there  is  no  room  for  doubt,  question 
or  challenge.  Teachers,  Oculists  and  Surgeons  combine  in  one 
united  body  and  give  an  unqualified  verdict.  For  thirty  years  we 
have  had  abundant  opportunity  for  observation  and  experiment 
and  we  give  an  emphatic,  unreserved  confirmation  to  the  testi- 
mony just  alluded  to.  No  matter  what  pattern  desks  and  seats 
are  in  use,  what  the  light  may  be  and  what  the  nature  and 
thoroughness  of  the  instruction  ;  whenever  children  are  required  to 
write  in  the  sloping  style  their  postures  will  present  every  variety 
of  abnormity  and  distortion. 

The  concurrent  evidence  of  a  body  of  medical  experts  and 
specialists  supported  by  the  experience  of  thousands  of  teachers 
goes  to  show  that  in  sloping  writing  the  side  position  of  the 
body  is  inevitable  ;  that  twisting  of  the  head  or  neck,  and  dis- 
tortion of  the  spine  must  accompany  this  side  position  ;  that 
displacement  of  the  right  shoulder,  deflection  of  the  wrist,  a 
disturbance  of  the  common  action  of  the  two  eyes  with  a 
consequent  delusive  and  oblique  view  of  the  book,  and  an 
unhealthy  compression  of  the  chest  walls  involving  pneumonic 
and  gastric  disturbances,  are  the  inseparable  accompaniments  of 
the  postures  required  in  and  necessary  to  oblique  writing. 

The  directions  generally  prescribed  to  a  writing  class  where 
sloping  penmanship  is  taught  run  as  follow  :— 

1.  Left  sides  to  the  desk. 

2.  Left  arms  close  in  to  side. 

3.  Left  hands  on  Copy  Books. 

4.  Right  elbows  in  to  side. 

5.  Pens  pointing  to  right  ear  (or  chin). 

6.  Faces  turned  towards  Books. 

7.  Grasp  pens  firmly  and  Go  on  !  !  ! 

What  can  be  expected  from  a  system  of  writing  that  inflicts 
such  conditions  as  these  ?  As  to  the  writing  an  answer  is  sup- 
plied in  Chapter  I,— it  is  a  miserable  failure  ;  and  with  reference 


14  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

to  the  writers  themselves  we  get  such  a  number  of  debilitated  and 
deformed  victims  so  seriously  affected  in  lungs,  spine  or  eyes  as  to 
create  a  feeling  of  alarm  in  medical  and  educational  circles  and 
even  in  Departments  and  Councils. 

Eminent  Medical  Gentlemen  have  pursued  their  investiga- 
tions into  the  question  of  postures  in  schools  with  great  ability 
patience  and  success.  Such  experts  as  Barnard,  Cohn,  Carpenter, 
Carter,  Coindet  Reuss,  Lorenz,  Smith  have  been  indefatigably 
working,  with  the  outcome  of  a  unanimous  pronouncement  that 
all  the  ills  which  initiated  the  inquiry  are  traceable  to  the  postures 
assumed  in  and  required  by  the  Slanting  writing. 

One  writer  says  "  The  postures  of  young  people  assumed  in 
"  the  sloping  writing  are  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  the  production 
"  of  spinal  curvature." 

Another  declares  these  postures  to  be  "  without  doubt  recognis- 
"  able  as  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  crooked  growth." 
Were  this  the  only  effect  it  would  be  more  than  enough  to  justify 
an  official  inquiry  into  the  whole  question  ;  but  when  equally 
dismal  testimony  is  borne  to  the  injury  of  other  organs  (notably 
the  eyes)  and  the  interference  with  other  functions,  the  urgency  of 
the  case  becomes  irresistible. 

Vertical  Writing  is  the  only  specific  for  these  abnormal 
postures  and  their  train  of  disastrous  consequences.  The  elabora- 
tion of  the  argument  in  support  of  this  statement  will  be  found  in 
the  able  analysis  detailed  in  Appendix  II  at  the  end  of  this 
volume.  The  material  difference  between  this  Upright  or  Per- 
pendicular Style  and  Slanting  Writing  is  in  the  Direction  of  the 
Downstrokes  of  the  letters  ;  in  the  former  being  definitely  and 
absolutely  Vertical  in  the  latter  indefinitely  and  variously  Sloped 
or  Oblique.  It  is  incredible  what  a  difference  this  slight  and 
seemingly  insignificant  alteration  in  the  down  strokes  makes,  and 
what  an  effect  it  exerts  upon  the  writer.  When  found  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  minor  characteristics  of  the  system,  viz.  short  loops, 
minimum  thickness  and  continuity  the  results  are  almost  ma- 
gical. 

Before  detailing  the  several  Hygienic  merits  of  Upright  Pen- 

See  also  Report  of  French  Commission,  by  Dr.  Javal  (Physiology  of  Writing, 
Pocket  Pedagogical  Library,  No.  2). 


WRITING   IN    RELATION    TO   HYGIENE  15 

manship  reference  may  be  made  to  some  of  the  statements  of 
Medical  Men  in  regard  to  its  claims.  The  opinions  are  dogmatic 
and  incontestable. 

"Vertical  Writing  is  the  only  system  consistent  with  all 
"  Hygienic  principles." 

"  It  is  impossible  for  writers  to  avoid  twisting  the  Spine  unless 
"they  adopt  an  upright  style  of  caligraphy." 

"  The  absolute  superiority  of  this  method  of  writing  over  other 
"  methods  must  be  recognised." 

"Upright  Writing  is  very  much  to  be  preferred  to  oblique 
"  Writing." 

Now  what  is  the  posture  necessary  to  the  Vertical  Writing  ? 
In  one  word  it  is  the  natural  position,  indeed  it  is  the  posture 
that  a  pupil  will  instinctively  assume  in  the  effort  to  write 
vertically.  Granted  that  the  book  lies  evenly  on  the  desk  in 
the  straight  middle  position  (as  described  further  on)  and  that 
the  Scholar  has  been  duly  instructed  how  to  hold  his  pen,  the 
writer's  position  is  actually  dictated  by  the  style  of  writing 
adopted,  and  he  sits  square  before  his  desk  both  arms  evenly 
placed  thereon,  the  whole  posture  being  the  simplest  and  easiest 
that  could  be  prescribed  for  the  work  to  be  done.  The  eyes  look 
straight  down  upon  the  page,  the  hand  wrist  and  arm  are  in  the 
best  condition  and  relation  for  a  running  handwriting,  the  body 
is  not  distressed  by  artificial  posing,  the  spine  rests  in  a  normal 
condition,  the  chest  remains  free  from  all  external  pressure,  and 
the  writing  is  thus  produced  with  the  least  expenditure  of  energy 
and  therefore  with  the  minimum  amount  of  weariness. 

By  referring  to  the  diagrams  (figs.  7  &  8)  it  will  be  observed 
that  instead  of  the  oblique  or  side  position  we  have  the  square  or 
front  posture  ;  instead  of  the  head  all  awry  we  have  a  straight  pose 
securing  an  identity  or  parallelism  of  the  facial  and  chest  planes 
with  the  edge  of  the  desk  ;  instead  of  the  elbows  close  in  to  the 
side  we  have  them  both  unrestiicted  and  free  ;  instead  of  the 
oblique  and  hence  delusive  view  of  the  book  we  secure  an  even 
and  perfect  command  of  the  page  ;  and  in  place  of  the  awkward 


i6 


MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 


sprawl  over  the  desk  we  have  the  nearly  upright  position,  free 
from  even  the  tendency  towards  an  unhealthy  or  painful  attitude. 
It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  since  all  unnatural  positions  are 


precluded  from  the  System,  Vertical  Writing  strictly  fulfils  every 
Hygienic  requirement. 

When  we  turn  to  the  actual  achievements  of  Vertical  Writing, 
as  exhibited  in  the  evidence  of  numerous  teachers  in  schools  of 


WRITING    IN    RELATION    TO    HYGIENE  17 

all  grades  where  it  has  been  adopted  and  tested  what  do  we  see? 
In  passing  let  it  be  remembered  that  this  test  of  experience  is  the 
crucial  test,  which  has  once  for  all  determined  the  correctness  and 


i? 


y 


s 


soundness  of  medical  theories  and  deductions,  as  well  as  of  our 
own  frequently  repeated  categorical  assertions.  It  is  found  that 
the  Evidence  is  Uniform,  undisturbed  by  a  single  conflicting 
dissentient.  Scores  and  hundreds  ot  these  contributions  have 


18  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

been  received  (from  all  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent) 
yielding  a  variety  of  testimony  covering  every  point  in  the  contro- 
versy. Whilst  teachers  unanimously  declare  that  vertical  writing 
disposes  finally  and  satisfactorily  of  the  painful  postures  that  have 
in  the  Sloping  writing  worked  such  havoc  amongst  school  children 
for  so  many  years,  they  also  unite  in  testifying  that  the  Upright 
Penmanship  enkindles  a  greater  interest  in  the  art  specially  with 
pupils,  that  it  entails  much  less  labour  in  teaching,  that  it 


FIG.  9. 

wonderfully  accelerates  the  rate  of  progress  and  improvement,  that 
it  secures  a  much  higher  standard  of  excellence  and  that  it  mate- 
rially increases  the  speed  of  the  writer.  These  points  however 
will  be  considered  later  on. 

'  During  the  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of  his  paper 
the  author  formulated  the  following  resolution,  which,  being  pro- 
posed by  Dr.  Noble  Smith  (and  by  Dr.  Kotelmann  in  German) 
and  seconded  by  Professor  Gladstone  (then)  Vice  Chairman  of 
the  School  Board  for  London,  was  put  and  carried. 

"That,  as  the  Hygienic  advantages  of  Vertical  Writing  have 
"  been  clearly  demonstrated  and  established  both  by  Medical  in- 
"  vestigation  and  practical  experiment  and  that  as  by  its  adoption 


WRITING  IN    RELATION   TO   HYGIENE  Ip 

"the  injurious  postures  so  productive  of  spinal  curvature  and 
"short  sight  are  to  a  very  great  extent  avoided,  it  is  hereby 
"recommended  that  Upright  Penmanship  he  introduced  and 
"generally  taught  in  our  elementary  and  secondary  schools." 

Every  member  of  the  congress  that  addressed  the  section 
spoke  in  unqualified  terms  of  the  claims  of  Upright  Penmanship 
to  every  Hygienic  Superiority,  and  nothing  could  have  been  more 
unanimous  than  the  feeling  which  pervaded  the  entire  meeting  on 
the  subject. 

To  proceed  to  the  aspects  of  this  Hygienic  Relation  in  a 
particular  sense,  we  would  direct  attention  to  the  opinions  and 
report  of  the  Specialists  appointed  by  the  Vienna  Supreme  Council 
to  investigate  the  effect  of  Vertical  Writing  upon  the  attitude  of 
the  body  and  the  checking  of  defects  of  sight  —Professor  A.  R.  v. 
Reuss  (University  Vienna)  in  Ophthalmology  and  Professor  A. 
Lorenz  (University  Vienna)  in  Orthopaedics.  Report  of 
French  Commission — Dr.  Javal,  Physiologic  del'Ecriture 
(Pocket  Pedagogical  Library,  No.  2). 

A.     PROFESSOR  REUSS'  (OPHTHALMOLOGIST)  OPINION  IN 
RESPECT  OF  OPHTHALMOLOGY 

For  years  the  School  Desk  question  occupied  medical  men 
and  teachers.  Short  sight  and  spinal  curvature  continually 
increasing  in  number  and  degree  called  for  preventive  measures. 
The  question  of  School  Desks  was  considered  as  solved  by  a 
correct  proportioning  to  the  size  of  the  writer,  by  the  introduction 
of  the  minimum  distance  and  the  application  of  back-rests.  The 
question  proved  unsolved.  Children  sat  upon  the  new  benches 
approved  by  the  faculty  just  as  badly  as  upon  the  old.  .  .  . 
To  the  oculist  and  to  the  surgeon  it  was  always  evident  that  the 
position  of  the  head  in  writing  exercises  a  powerful  influence  on 
the  attitude  of  the  whole  body,  and  that  an  abnormity  in  the  pose 
of  the  head  which  is  at  first  apparently  unimportant  soon  brings 
in  its  train  a  very  erroneous  position  of  the  entire  body.  It  was 
also  found  that  in  reading  we  always  turn  the  head  so  that  the 
base-line  of  the  eyes  (that  is  the  line  connecting  the  axes  of  the 
two  eyes)  if  prolonged  to  meet  the  surface  of  the  page  corresponds 

C  2 


20  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

to  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  print.  Moreover  in  writing  it  will 
usually  be  seen  that  the  ground  strokes  of  the  letters  stand 
perpendicular  to  this  prolongation  of  the  base-line  of  the  eyes. 
The  direction  of  the  lines  of  writing  and  the  angle  which  the 
downstrokes  make  with  those  lines  influence  considerably  therefore 
the  attitude  of  the  head  and  body  of  the  writer.  But  even  here 
there  soon  appeared  a  difference  between  theory  and  practice. 
People  thought  that  if  only  the  ground  strokes  came  to  be  vertical 
to  the  edge  of  the  desk  the  base  line  of  the  eyes  must  needs 
remain  parallel  to  this  edge  and  so  the  whole  body  exhibits  an 
upright  posture.  But  this  was  not  so.  In  the  so-called  oblique 
middle  position  (see  Chap.  VII.  for  explanation)  of  the  Copy  Book 
the  above  postulate  was  fulfilled  and  yet  the  children  sat  awry. 
It  became  manifest  that  the  direction  of  the  lines  exercised  a 
^reat  influence  on  the  attitude  of  the  body  and  that  the  school 
:hildren  placed  the  base-line  of  their  eyes  parallel  to  the  edge  of 
the  desk  when  the  lines  also  ran  parallel  to  it  provided  that  a 
turning  of  the  head  was  not  necessitated  by  the  obliquity  of  the 
letters,  i.e.,  provided  the  ground  strokes  stand  upright  on  the  lines 
or  in  other  words  that  vertical  writing  is  used. 

To  Principal  Dr.  Bayr  we  owe  the  service  of  having  first 
proved  by  experiments  on  a  large  scale  the  accuracy  of  the 
hypotheses  or  theoretical  considerations  we  have  just  briefly 
stated.  They  triumphantly  furnished  the  proof.  The  position  of 
the  scholars  in  Vertical  Writing  is  an  exemplary  one  ;  the  head  is 
slightly  bent  and  remains — which,  to  the  oculist,  is  the  most 
essential  point — at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  desk,  and  there- 
with the  whole  body  preserves  a  correct  attitude.  The  desks  on 
which  these  experiments  took  place  were  not  such  as  to  exercise 
especially  favourable  effect  on  the  posture  and  it  was  observed 
that  the  same  scholars  who  sat  correctly  in  Vertical  Writing  at 
once  assumed  the  faulty  posture  which  is  found  in  all  schools 
during  writing  as  soon  as  they  wrote  a  sloping  hand.  In  fact  it 
could  easily  be  recognised  by  the  attitude  of  the  body  in  which 
style  they  were  writing  when  part  of  the  pupils  were  instructed  to 
write  sloping  and  part  upright. 


WRITING    IN    RELATION    TO    HYGIENE  21 

One  must  however  at  once  meet  an  objection  which  was  made 
on  the  part  of  a  teacher. 

"  If  in  a  school  "  says  he  "  one  subject  is  cultivated  so  much 
"  beyond  others  as  writing  is  with  Dr.  Bayr  and  if  the  attitude  of 
"the  body  is  so  closely  supervised  as  by  him  then  it  is  no  wonder 
"  that  the  children  sit  upright.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  girls 
"especially. when  these  experiments  are  carried  out  easily  exag- 
"gerate  involuntarily  the  faulty  postures  of  body  in  oblique 
"  writing.  Moreover  the  pupils  if  they  do  not  wish  to  be  in  the 
"way  with  their  pen  when  writing  are  forced  to  a  position  of  the 
"hand  in  which  they  can  only  write  a  round  style  or  Roman 
"  hand  :  therefore  the  introduction  of  vertical  writing  will  be 
"equivalent  to  the  adoption  of  Roman  hand  by  the  exclusion  of 
"  the  present  current  hand  :  the  latter  is  however  a  national 
"  peculiarity,"  and  so  on.  One  sees  with  what  remarkable  views 
hygienic  questions  can  be  judged. 

A  reply  is  necessary  because  this  solitary  voice  apparently 
represents  the  opinion  of  a  whole  party. 

Before  everything  it  must  be  mentioned  that  the  bad  position 
of  pupils  in  Oblique  writing  as  it  was  observed  in  Herr  Bayr's- 
school  differs  as  little  in  character  as  in  degree  from  the  usual 
writing  position  as  can  be  seen  at  any  time  in  any  school  and  as 
has  been  observed  since  special  attention  was  given  to  the  bodily 
attitude  of  pupils.  A  warning  from  the  teacher  improves  the 
position  for  a  few  minutes  but  quite  spontaneously  the  oblique 
position  soon  returns. 

Even  if  the  continual  upright  position  during  the  practice  of 
vertical  writing  were  only  the  result  of  a  firm  discipline  it  would 
be  a  circumstance  greatly  in  favour  of  this  style.  Furthermore  in 
other  schools  where  no  attention  is  given  to  the  position  of  the 
ground  strokes— in  which  on  the  contrary  the  principle  of  leaving 
the  slant  of  the  letters  to  the  fancy  of  the  pupil  holds  good — it 
was  observed  that  individual  scholars  who  had  a  specially  correct 
posture  wrote  in  upright  fashion  or  nearly  so  and  here  any  special 
oversight  of  the  pupils  was  completely  excluded. 

If  in  Vertical  Writing  (but   this  is  beyond  the  province  of  the 


22  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

Medical  man  to  investigate)  the  Roman  hand  is  possible  and  if 
the  introduction  of  the  former  is  equivalent  to  a  monopoly  for  the 
latter  this  can  only  be  hailed  with  gladness  by  Medical  men. 

By  the  dropping  of  one  alphabet  (there  are  really  two  now 
written  and  printed)  an  important  relief  would  be  afforded  to  the 
pupil  and  therewith  also  would  disappear  a  national  peculiarity 
which  compels  the  Germans,  in  distinction  to  other  nations,  to 
allow  their  children's  eyes  to  undergo  a  double  strain. 

Were  one  to  prove  the  value  of  a  correct  position  of  the  head 
from  an  oculist's  point  of  view  this  would  be  going  much  too  far 
and  besides  would  be  superfluous^  for  one  cannot  consider  the 
defence  of  a  position  which  no  one  attacks. 

This  only  shall  be  stated  that  Vertical  Writing,  in  addition, 
makes  it  possible  to  prescribe  spectacles  for  pupils  who  are  already 
shortsighted  without  the  subsequent  fear  that  this  will  help  the 
increase  of  myopia  through  an  incorrect  position  of  the  head. 

That  vertical  writing  necessitates  another  form  of  Copy  book, 
that  is  with  shorter  lines,  is  a  very  subordinate  matter  and  one 
must  in  this  as  in  many  other  respects  realise  the  fact  that  while 
vertical  writing  is  with  us  an  unusual  thing,  it  is  as  far  as  I  know 
a  usual  thing  in  England  and  America. 

"  It  is  therefore,  strongly  recommended  that  the  Imperial  and 
"  Royal  Supreme  Council  of  Health  would  support  to  the  utmost 
"  the  endeavours  towards  a  general  adoption  of  Vertical  W'riting." 

B.     OPINIONS  IN  RESPECT  OF  ORTHOPAEDICS 

At  the  request  of  Herr  Bayr,  conductor  of  the  City  Public 
School  in  Vienna,  the  Commission  composed  of  Messrs.  Coun- 
cillor Kusy,  Councillor  of  Health  Albert,  and  the  experts  Messrs. 
Von  Reuss,  Gouber  and  Lorenz  met  in  the  aforenamed  school 
building  to  undertake  an  inspection  of  the  children  who  were  using 
the  upright  Gtyle  of  writing. 

In  the  report  now  presented  the  theoretical  grounds  which 
were  alleged  on  behalf  of  the  straight  middle  position  of  the  Copy 
Book  and  against  the  oblique  middle  position  will  not  be  stated,  for 


WRITING   IN    RELATION    TO   HYGIENE  23 

this  question  has  already  repeatedly  been  exhaustively  discussed. 
It  must  however  be  said  that  the  results  of  the  latest  researches 
in  this  field  (the  eminent  work  of  the  Oculist  Dr.  Schubert  of 
Nuremberg  is  here  referred  to)  speak  without  exception  in  favour 
of  Vertical  Writing. 

The  problem  before  the  Commission  consisted  simply  in  this  : 
to  see  in  use  the  System  of  vertical  writing  introduced  methodi 
cally  by  Herr  Dr.  Bayr  into  the  institution  under  his  charge  and 
especially  to  observe  its  influence  on  the  attitude  of  the  children 
while  writing. 

In  this  connection  it  must  be  stated  that  the  Members  of  the 
Commission  have  unanimously  carried  away  the  best  impression 
of  the  correctness  of  attitude  of  the  children  who  write  the  upright 
hand.  By  the  arrangement  made — the  children  on  the  desks  on 
one  side  of  the  schoolroom  writing  the  customary  oblique  style 
those  in  the  desks  opposite  on  the  contrary  the  upright  hand— the 
extraordinarily  favourable  impression  which  the  attitude  of  the 
vertical  writers  made  was  rendered  much  more  emphatic  and  im- 
portant. 

The  aforesaid  correct  posture  of  body  of  those  children  who 
used  vertical  writing  showed  itself,  without  any  influence  whatever 
on  the  part  of  the  superintending  teacher,  so  characteristic  and  so 
constant  that  in  a  second  class  where  children  who  wrote  upright 
and  those  who  wrote  obliquely  were  grouped  quite  irregularly  the 
members  of  the  Commission  were  able  even  from  a  distance—and 
more  easily  upon  a  close  view  especially  from  behind — to  distin- 
guish the  two  groups  one  from  another. 

Further  it  was  evident  that  also  for  rapidity  of  writing  the 
children  in  some  degree  accustomed  to  Vertical  Writing  were  in 
no  way  behind  those  who  wrote  obliquely. 

It  deserves  special  mention  that  the  children  use  for  vertical 
writing  no  specially  made  pens  (as  was  stated  in  many  quarters) 
but  with  the  usual  and  customary  instruments  wrote  a  hand  which 
was  as  pleasing  as  it  was  clear  and  legible.  Specimens  of  it  were 
submitted  to  the  Commission. 

It  was  remarkable  that  the  Vertical  writers  showed  a  perma- 


24  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

nently  upright  position  of  the  head.  With  the  oblique  writers  even 
if  the  position  of  the  head  were  good  at  the  beginning  of  the  work 
gradually  in  the  course  of  the  writing  lesson  there  appeared  a 
marked  tendency  to  bend  the  head  to  the  left.  The  position  of 
the  head  is  affected  in  an  obvious  degree  by  the  direction  of  the 
lines  of  writing  and  since  these  run  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  desk 
in  Vertical  Writing  the  necessity  of  turning  the  head  to  the  left  is 
done  away  with  for  the  child  who  writes  upright  whereas  the 
oblique  writer  is,  to  some  extent,  compelled  to  turn  his  head 
owing  to  the  lines  ascending  towards  ihe  right. 

A  normal  position  of  the  head  must  be  received  as  the  primary 
essential  of  a  good  posture  in  writing.  Each  side  turning  of  the 
head  is  necessarily  followed,  by  lateral  movements  of  the  spinal 
column  whose  frequent  return  with  longer  duration  each  time  is 
without  doubt  recognisable  as  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of 
crooked  growth. 

Quite  apart  from  all  other  advantages  the  absolute  superi- 
ority of  this  method  of  writing  over  other  methods  must 
be  admitted,  for  the  children  who  use  it  are  not  in  the  least 
compelled  to  any  lateral  twisting  of  the  head  owing  to  the  kind 
of  manipulation  used  in  what  we  may  call  their  professional  work. 

The  practical  use  of  vertical  writing  corroborates  the  theo- 
retical inference  that  it  does  not  by  the  method  and  manner  of 
practising  it,  conceal  within  itself  the  tendency  or  compulsion  to 
an  oblique  position  of  sitting  and  consequently  to  a  crooked 
growth. 

Given  rightly-proportioned  desks— and  especially  back-rests 
which  are  suitably  constructed  and  adapted  to  the  writing  position 
by  means  of  which  the  fatigue  which  inevitably  follows  each  posi- 
tion of  sitting  is  most  effectually  held  in  check — Vertical  Writing 
is  very  much  to  be  preferred  from  the  orthopaedic  point  of  view  to 
oblique  writing,  and  has  been  recommended  for  a  long  time  by 
many  orthopaedic  Surgeons  in  private  practice  with  the  best 
results  for  rendering  the  writing  position  a  healthy  one  ! 

Comment  on  the  tone  and  conclusions  of  the  above  report 


WRITING    IN    RELATION    TO    HYGIENE  25 

would  be  superfluous.  The  investigation  was  so  complete,  the 
experiment  so  thorough  and  the  decision  so  unanimous  that 
nothing  could  add  to  its  effect  and  authority. 

We  presume  there  can  be  no  appeal  from  the  almost  identical 
findings  of  these  two  supreme  Councils.  Indeed  who  would  feel 
himself  qualified  to  challenge  them  particularly  as  they  are 
supported  by  universal  experience. 

The  finality  of  the  verdict  is,  and  must  be  recognised  by  every 
thinking  inind. 

But  here  the  obligation  and  responsibility  of  Teachers 
commence,  here  the  prerogative  of  our  Educational  Boards  and 
Departments  should  be  exercised.  Shall  Hundreds  of  Thousands 
of  our  children  continue  to  suffer  the  injuries  and  inconveniences 
inflicted  by  an  admittedly  pernicious  System  of  Sloping  Writing 
when  a  perfectly  harmless,  Hygienic  and  in  every  way  Superior 
System  of  Penmanship  is  both  existing  and  available?  Shall 
health  be  ruined,  eyesight  be  deteriorated,  body  be  deformed  in 
hundreds  nay  thousands  of  instances  every  year  by  a  method  of 
writing  which  apart  from  Physiological  considerations  is  in  itself 
a  caligraphic  failure  (as  was  demonstrated  in  the  preceding 
chapter)  ?  Ought  not  our  Bureau  of  Education,  our  School 
Superintendents,  our  School  Boards  and  beyond  all  our  School 
Teachers  themselves  to  take  vigorous  and  immediate  action  in  a 
matter  fraught  with  such  grave  issues?  Delay  is  dangerous, 
indifference  is  criminal  and  inaction  equally  fatal,  both  as  to 
bodily  health  and  our  standard  of  writing  as  a  National  accom- 
plishment. 


26  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER   III 

UPRIGHT   OR    SLOPING    WRITING —WHICH  ? 

IF  the  question  of  Verticality  or  Obliquity  in  writing  were  to  be 
decided  by  the  considerations  of  Hygiene  only  there  would  be  no 
further  need  of  discussion.  But  there  are  various  other  matters 
which  should  obviously  receive  examination  and  be  definitely 
settled  ere  we  finally  determine  the  kind  of  writing  which  we  have 
to  teach.  In  approaching  this  investigation  it  is  necessary  that 
we  divest  ourselves  of  all  preconceived  ideas  and  all  personal 
prejudice.  It  is  not  a  question  of  what  style  of  writing  we  like 
best— though  to  hear  the  objections  generally  raised  by  teachers 
we  might  suppcsj  preference  and  prejudice  to  be  the  only  basis 
of  judgment  and  decision— or  even  what  we  think  best  which 
opinions  are  possibly  or  probably  based  on  no  independent 
research  but  are  rather  the  natural  evolution  of  our  environment. 

The  sole  question  about  which  we  have  to  concern  ourselves  is 
"  Which  is  the  best  ?  What  or  which  is  the  better  or  best  S\ 
and  Style  of  writing  ?  Are  the  down  strokes  to  be  Upright  or 
Sloping?  Shall  we  have  Vertical  or  Oblique  writing?  If  the 
latter  what  degree  of  slope  is  the  best,  what  shall  be  the  standard 
angle  ?  " 

We  have  already  seen  in  Chapter  I.  that  at  present  there  is  no 
agreement  amongst  slopers  as  to  the  preferential  angle,  not  even 
a  preponderance  of  opinion  as  to  any  one  angle  of  obliquity,  the 
angles  in  Headline  Copy  Books  varying  from  10°  to  65°  or  even 
70°  from  the  perpendicular. 

The  tendency  of  modern  thought  can  nevertheless  be  seen  in 
the  fact  that  the  latest  series  of  Copies  slope  less  and  less,  or 
more  nearly  approach  the  vertical,  whilst  the  publishers  or  authors 


UPRIGHT   OR   SLOPING   WRITING — WHICH  ?  27 

base  their  strongest  claims  to  public  favour  on  this  close  approxi- 
mation to  the  upright.  And  this  is  illustrated  still  further  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Belgian  and  German  Educational  Cabinets  which 
prescribe  that  no  writing  taught  in  the  Government  schools  shall 
have  a  slope  of  more  than  10°  and  20°  from  the  Vertical  respec- 
tively. In  order  then  to  decide  authoritatively  and  finally  which 
(if  either)  is  superior  and  which  (if  either)  possesses  such  an  excess 
of  merit  as  to  warrant  its  adoption  and  the  ultimate  condemnation 
and  abandonment  of  its  rival,  an  enquiry  must  be  made  into  the 
very  essentials  or  fundamentals  of  Good  Writing. 

What  are  the  distinguishing  qualities  or  the  prime  factors  so 
to  speak  of  a  really  good  handwriting?  In  the  first  plade  it  must 
be  legible  or  easily  read.  Then  it  should  be  rapid  and  easily 
written.  Moreover  it  must  be  easy  to  learn  and  easy  to  teach. 
Having  already  disposed  of  the  Hygienic  element  we  need  not 
refer  to  it  in  this  connexion  at  any  length.  The  best  system  or 
style  of  Caligraphy  then  will  be  that  which  is  at  once  the  Most 
Legible,  Most  Rapid,  Most  Economical,  and  Most  easy  to  learn, 
teach  and  produce.  Of  course  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the 
letters  are  well  formed  and  in  strict  accord  with  the  accepted 
principles  of  construction.  Assuming  that  this  definition  of  Good, 
or  the  Best,  Writing  is,  if  not  critically  the  most  perfect,  at  least 
generally  correct  and  comprehensive,  it  is  proposed  to  examine  the 
two  Systems  on  these  lines  and  to  test  their  individual  merits  by 
these  four  several  standards. 

Eirst  as  to 

LEGIBILITY  : 

which  is  the  more  legible,  Sloping  or  Slanting  writing? 
Which  the  more  easily  read?  A  very  simple  illustration  will  be 
sufficient  to  answer  the  question.  In  Fig.  10  there  are  five  rows  of 
right  lines,  eleven  lines  in  each  row.  Now  what  is  the  optical  effect 
produced  in  the  observer,  and  what  is  the  actual  fact  as  regards 
these  lines?  The  impression  produced  upon  any  one  looking 
carefully  at  these  rows  is  that  the  lines  in  the  lowest  rank  are 
shorter  than  the  others  and  that  they  are  drawn  closer  together, 


28  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

that  as  we  proceed   upwards  the  lines    become  longer  and  are 
drawn  wider  apart,  i.e.  to  base  points  at  greater  distances. 

These   optical  effects  are  however   delusions   or   deceptions 


FIG.  10. 


caused  by  the  sloping  nature  of  the  strokes.  For  the  actual  fact 
is  that  the  lines  in  all  the  rows  are  equal  in  length  and  that  they 
are  all  drawn  to  base  points  equi-distant  from  each  other  as  can 
be  ascertained  by  verifying  measurement.  The  impression  that 


UPRIGHT    OR    SLOPING    WRITING — WHICH  ?  2Q 

the  sloping  lines  are  nearer  to  each  other  than  the  vertical  strokes 
is  nevertheless  true,  but  this  nearness  is  caused  not  by  the  base 
points  being  nearer  together  but  from  the  geometrical  principles 


that  govern  all  parallel  right  lines  drawn  vertically  and  obliquely 
to  any  horizontal  from  points  equi-distant  from  each  other,  all 
lines  approaching  more  nearly  to  one  another  as  the  slope  in- 
creases until  coincidence  is  reached  at  90°  from  the  upright.  Since 


30  MANUAL    OF    HANDWRITING 

then  it  is  a  demonstrated  law  that  lines  are  clear  distinct  and 
legible  in  proportion  as  they  are  separate  from  each  other,  that  all 
ines  but  the  vertical  are  more  or  less  delusive  in  their  effects  and 


FIG.  12. 


that  the  upright  lines  possess  a  maximum  of  isolation  or  width 
apart,  it  follows  both  logically  and  geometrically  that  vertical 
writing  must  be  the  clearest  and  the  most  legible,  rigs,  i  i  and  12 
in  which  the  words  "  men  "  and  "  nun  "  are  written  vertical!  vain  I  at 


•Jl'KIGHT   OR    SLOPING   WRITING—WHICH?  31 

ordinary  slopes  exhibit  a  fair  comparison  of  the  relative  legibility 
of  the  two  styles. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  superior  boldness  and  legi- 
oility  of  the  Upright  penmanship.  The  down  strokes  are  of  the 
same  length  and  weight  in  each  column  but  the  effect  is  wonder- 
fully different.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  vertical  affords  much  more 
scope  for  a  bold  and  perfect  outline  than  the  oblique  style  can 
possibly  admit  of,  and  that  the  greater  the  slope,  the  more 
attenuated,  the  closer  and  more  imperfect  the  outline.  Now  as 
enthusiasts  on  both  sides  claim  superiority  in  Legibility  one  might 
consequently  imagine  that  it  was  a  matter  of  opinion.  The  fore- 
going remarks  prove  that  this  is  not  so.  Our  books,  pamphlets, 
newspapers — in  short  literature  of  all  kinds — are  printed  not  in 
italics  or  sloping  type  but  in  plain,  and  plain  because  vertical, 
Roman  upright  characters.  Italics  and  sloping  script  are  not  as 
legible  as  upright  type  and  writing.  This  superior  readableness  of 
Vertical  handwriting  is  everywhere  recognised  (notwithstanding  the 
feeble  protests  of  a  small  minority  of  too  enthusiastic  slopers)  by 
the  Government  and  Civil  Service  in  which  latter  the  system  is 
becoming  increasingly  popular  and  general  in  every  department. 
The  instructions  on  Government  Examination  papers  or  in  the 
Blue  Books  run  as  follow :  "  Let  your  writing  be  as  bold  and 
"  upright  as  possible."  "  Writing  should  as  far  as  possible 
"  imitate  broad  printing."  There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
inferior  plainness  of  sloping  writing  and  as  to  the  fact  that 
Upright  Penmanship  has  justified  its  claim  to  the  maximum  of 
Legibility. 

SPEED   OR  RATE  OF  PEN-TRAVELLING 

The  most  rapid  writers  in  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Co.  use  the  Vertical  Writing" 
BECAUSE  IT  is  THE  MOST  RAPID  and  because  it  can  be  written  with  LESS  FATIGUE  THAN  THE 
SLOPING.  The  style  is  that  taught  by  the  author. 

At  the  first  glance  it  might  be  thought  that  sloping  writing 
would  certainly  have  the  advantage  with  respect  to  rapidity  or 
speed.  The  slanting  strokes  seem  to  be  so  much  freer  as  they 
certainly  are  so  much  longer  than  the  vertical,  that  one  is  inclined 
to  think  the  oblique  style  more  expeditious  than  the  upright. 
When  we  come  however  to  enquire  into  the  conditions  and  laws 


32  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

which  regulate  and  fix  the  rate  of  pen-travelling  we  find  several 
considerations  must  enter  into  the  discussion  and  that  each  is 
adverse  to  sloping  penmanship.  The  conclusions  of  Chapter  II. 
are  both  pertinent  and  vital  to  the  discussion.  Position  or  the 
posture  of  the  writer  is  of  the  highest  moment.  A  free  easy  and 
normal  attitude  must  be  more  favourable  to  and  will  also  secure  a 
higher  speed  than  a  stiff,  constrained  and  painful  position  could 
possibly  permit. 

If,  as  it  has  been  abundantly  proved,  the  posture  in  Vertical 
writing  be  free  and  natural  whilst  in  Slanting  writing  it  is  twisted 
and  awkward  the  question  of  relative  speed  is  conclusively  settled. 
The  advantage  which  a  natural  posture  offers  and  secures  to  the 
vertical  writer  must  guarantee  a  higher  rate  of  pen-travelling.  The 
slanting  writer  is  heavily  handicapped  and  comes  in  a  very  bad 
second.  (See  pp.  23,  121,  &c.) 

Furthermore  it  is  found  that  the  strokes  which  a  vertical 
writer  makes  in  his  movements  with  the  pen  are  quite  as  easy  as 
those  made  in  the  sloping  style  and  far  shorter,  for  careful  calcula- 
tions show  that  the  ordinary  oblique  writing  necessitates  the  pen 
moving  over  20  to  25  per  cent,  more  length  of  outline  than 
Vertical  writing  of  the  same  size,  that  is  between  the  same  parallels, 
and  that  it  accordingly  occupies  that  amount  of  extra  time.  A 
reference  to  Fig.  13  will  make  this  apparent.  Approximately 
the  lengths  of  the  continuous  letters  in  the  five  lines  are  as  6,  7, 
8,  9  and  10. 

Now  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  ten  units  of  work  require  no 
more  time  to  execute  or  perform  than  six  units  of  the  same  work 
it  is  obvious  that  Upright  Penmanship  must  be  more  rapid  than 
oblique.  It  is  not  needful  to  say  that  six  miles  can  be  much  more 
speedily  covered  than  ten  miles,  and  six  inches  than  ten 
inches. 

This  being  so,  the  amount  of  waste — waste  of  time  (of  labour 
and  material  also  as  will  be  presently  proved) — that  is  going  on  in 
the  caligraphic  world  is  a  very  grave  consideration. 

Gratifying  corroboration  of  this  proposition  has  reached  us 
from  the  continent  where  extensive  experiments  have  been  made 


UPRIGHT   OR   SLOPING   WRITING— WHICH  ?  33 

(in  Vienna  and  elsewhere)  to  thoroughly    test   this    question,  a 
remarkable  coincidence  in  the  figures  being  the  outcome,     Dr. 


ZEKZ 


FIG.  13. 

Scharff  conducted  several  contests  between  the  two  classes  of 
writers,  and  states  that  vertical  writers — the  best— took  24  minutes 
to  copy  out  a  poem  which  the  best  sloping  writers  finished  in  30 

D 


34  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

minutes.  This  ratio  is  about  the  same  as  that  shown  in  the  figure 
namely  3  or  4  to  5. 

From  the  printed  Report  of  the  .Vienna  Commission  the 
figures  were  slightly  different,  "the  best  verticals  were  4,  sooner  or 
quicker  than  the  best  slopers."  These  experiments  in  Vienna  were 
conducted  by  Drs.  Schubert,  Bayr  and  others. 

Such  a  slight  variance  in  the  ratios  may  be  and  probably  is 
owing  to  the  short  time  the  verticals  have  been  writing  that  style. 
It  is  hardly  just  to  institute  a  comparison  between  boys  say  of  15 
on  the  one  hand  who  have  written  sloping  all  their  lives  and 
those  who — of  the  same  age — have  written  vertically  only  one  or 
two  years  of  that  period.  When  classes  in  the  upper  standards  (the 
5th  or  6th  year  of  school  life)  that  have  written  vertically  from  the 
first  are  available,  then  and  only  then  can  an  impartial  and  fair 
test  be  prescribed.  Nevertheless,  when  under  the  conditions, 
which  to  Vertical  writers  are  so  unusually  severe,  Upright  Penman- 
ship is  able  to  establish  its  superiority  as  to  speed  by  a  ratio  of  4 
to  5  or  5  to  6,  the  ultimate  advantage  to  be  gained  by  adopting 
the  vertical  system  'cannot  be  for  a  moment  called  in  question. 

ECONOMY  IN  SPACE,  &c. 

Vertical  writing  speaks  for  itself  so  palpably  and  so  emphatically 
in  this  respect  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  linger  long  on  the  question. 
The  sprawling,  straggling  scribble  so  common  in  the  oblique  style 
becomes  compact  and  characteristic — full  of  individuality — in  the 
upright.  Let  anyone  try  the  experiment  for  himself.  After 
repeated  and  various  comparisons  of  Copy  Book  headlines  it  is 
ascertained  that  for  the  same  or  similar  sized  writing  the  vertical 
will  yield  from  30  to  60  per  cent,  more  matter  in  the  same  space- 
length.  Several  books  being  tested  page  by  page  the  surprising 
disclosure  was  made  that  where  the  sloping  gave  20  to  25 
the  upright  supplied  35  to  40  letters.  A  glance  at  the  reduced 
facsimile  (Fig.  14)  of  an  ordinarypage  in  the  Upright  Penmanship 
Copy  Books  will  convince  anyone  of  the  advantage  to  be  secured 
in  space  and  compactness  by  the  adoption  of  that  system  of 


UPRIGHT   OR   SLOPING    WRITING — WHICH? 


35 


writing.     Then  as  to  economy  in  ordinary  correspondence  and 
manuscript  what  clergyman,  lawyer,  merchant,  student,  clerk,  has 


)  [rsj  rg  ra  rs 

iiriidrtr^i^ 


not  resorted  to  the  Vertical  Style  again  and  again  when  wishing 
to  compress  his  writing  into  the  smallest  possible  space  ? 

The  truth  is  that  sloping  induces  and  begets  sprawling  whilst  the 
upright  demands  contraction.    Take  as  an  independent  test  a  batch 


D  2 


36  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

of  letters  brought  any  morning  by  post,  counting  the  letters  and 
urrvrls  in  an  equal  number  of  lines  of  about  equal-sized  writing  in 
each  style.  Two  results  will  ensue.  The  Vertically  written  letters 
will  be  more  legible,  and  secondly  they  will  contain  about  40  per 
cent,  more  matter  in  the  same  space.  In  a  word  there  is  no 
question  on  this  point  of  economy,  as  its  strongest  opponents 
have  conceded  the  claim  and  advantage  of  Vertical  Writing  without 
an  exception.  Finally  it  must  be  remembered  that  such  an 
econony  in  time  and  space  carries  with  it  a  corresponding  saving 
in  both  labour  and  material  so  that  the  advantage  thus  gained  is 
one  of  great  value  to  the  community  at  large. 

• 

EASE  IN  LEARNING,  TEACHING  AND  PRODUCING 

The  last  quality  or  standard  of  comparison  we  have  to  examine 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting — first  to  juveniles,  next  to  teachers 
and  thirdly  to  the  general  public.  How  do  the  several  styles 
affect  the  pupil  or  learner,  the  instructor  and  the  ordinary  writer  ? 
We  take  the  first  two  together.  In  all  schools  and  educational 
establishments  where  any  profession  of  teaching  writing  is  made, 
the  one  great  complaint  is  the  insuperable  difficulty  in  securing 
the  right  slope  and  in  obtaining  a  uniform  parallelism  of  slope. 
Hut  there  is  an  equal  difficulty  with  the  writers  or  pupils  them- 
selves, for  not  one  teacher  in  a  hundred  is  successful  in  obtaining 
satisfactory  results.  First  there  is  the  unnatural  position  of  the 
body,  sideways  to  the  desk  ;  next  there  is  the  awkward  position 
of  the  arms,  pressed  close  in  to  the  side  ;  then  the  hand  must  be 
twisted  outwards,  the  pen  must  point  inwards  or  over  the  shoulder 
of  the  writer  and  when  all  this  is  posed  fixed  and  obtained  (we 
would  ask  when  is  it  obtained)  then  the  worst  trouble  of  all  has 
to  be  faced,  viz.,  to  arrange  the  writing,  determine  its  angle  of 
obliquity,  write  at  that  angle,  and  maintain  the  angle  uniformly 
throughout  the  page. 

But  it  is  a  notorious  fact  that  children  naturally  do  and 
certainly  will  write  vertically  whether  their  teachers  sanction  it  or 
not.  Is  it  not  true  that  pupils  almost  uniformly  tilt  up  their  books 


UPRIGHT    OR    SLOPING    WRITING — WHICH?  37 

to  an  angle  sufficient  to  give  verticality  (optically  considered)  to 
the  down  strokes,  and  will  hold  the  pen  as  vertical  writers  hold  it 
in  spite  of  the  repeated  commands  of  their  teachers  to  the 
contrary? 

A  pupil  is  restless  and  changes  his  posture  or  inclination  to 
the  desk  and  his  Copy  Book  faithfully  records  the  incident  by  a 
painfully  apparent  break  in  the  parallelism  of  the  writing,  or  he 
tilts  his  book  or  straightens  it  and  the  same  undesirable  phe- 
nomenon is  presented. 

In  Vertical  Writing  none  of  these  difficulties  and  anomalies 
distress  the  teacher,  none  of  these  absurdities  vex  the  bodies  and 
souls  of  our  pupils. 

There  is  no  artificial  or  abnormal  positions  of  head,  trunk, 
arm,  hand  and  pen  to  teach  and  secure,  for  every  child  will 
naturally  assume  the  right  posture  ;  the  book  lies  evenly  on  the 
desk  and  the  writing  follows  the  one  direction  of  the  vertical 
instead  of  the  legion  of  angles  of  direction  peculiar  to  and  in- 
separable from  the  oblique.  The  difficulties  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil  are  reduced  to  the  lowest  and  so  far  as  they  can  be,  writing 
and  the  teaching  of  writing  are  pleasant  factors  in  the  daily 
routine. 

Of  equal  value  is  the  consideration  that  this  greater  ease  is 
carried  outside  and  beyond  the  mere  teaching  and  learning  of  the 
art.  To  the  Vertical  Writer  no  weariness  or  "  writers'  cramp  "  will 
ensue  from  any  ordinary  or  even  extraordinary  exercise  of  his  art. 
The  task  of  writing  is  proceeded  with  under  the  best  conditions 
possible  and  thus  it  comes  to  pass  that  Upright  Penmanship  is 
not  only  taught  in  about  half  the  time  that  the  oblique  style  needs, 
but  that  it  makes  a  much  smaller  demand  upon  the  energy  or 
working  power  of  the  ordinary  writer  r.o  produce. 

Another  element  in  Vertical  Writing  bearing  on  the  same 
point  is  that  pupils  can  approximate  very  closely  to  the  perfection 
of  an  engraved  Headline,  whereas  this  is  impossible  with  the 
Oblique  Style,  unless  to  boys  and  girls  of  exceptional  imitative 
and  mechanical  ability.  The  effect  of  this  possibility  upon  the 
minds  of  children  is  simply  incalculable.  It  is  stimulative  to  an 


38  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

astonishing  degree  as  the  young  aspirants  for  caligraphic  fame 
write  with  a  Consciousness  of  Power  that  carries  them  on  to 
certain  victory  but  that  is  entirely  absent  when  writing  in  the 
sloping  style.  The  outcome  of  such  a  stimulus  is  as  surprising  to 
the  scholars  themselves  as  it  is  gratifying  to  their  teachers. 

A  few  photographed  specimens  of  such  work  by  pupils  from 
8  to  15  years  of  age,  and  having  had  from  one  to  three  years 
instruction  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  are  here  re- 
produced (see  Figs.  15  to  22).  It  will  be  observed  that  the  same 
wonderful  uniformity,  and  imitation  are  exhibited  by  the  youngest 
and  the  oldest  alike,  and  also  that  the  parallelism  throughout  is 
equally  perfect,  the  vertical  being  maintained  without  the  slightest 
deviation  therefrom  being  apparent. 

Reviewing  the  respective  points  in  our  argument  we  have 
found  it  demonstrated  that  Upright  Penmanship  is  far  more 
easily  Read,  Taught,  Acquired,  and  Written  ;  that  it  can  be 
rapidly  traced  ;  that  it  is  far  superior  in  all  Hygienic  principles  ; 
and  that  in  all  the  essential  qualities  which  distinguish  the  best 
style  or  System  of  Handwriting  it  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  the 
Slanting  method  and  to  all  forms  of  oblique  caligraphy. 

So  far  then,  as  to  the  direction  of  the  writing  that  shall  be 
taught,  it  is  undeniably  proved  and  unanimously  conceded  that 
it  must  be  Upright  and  not  slanting  or  oblique. 

The  advantages  of  Vertical  Writing  may  be  conveniently 
tabulated  in  the  following  form  which  we  think  covers  most  of  the 
ground  in  the  discussion.  They  are  classified  under  four  general 
heads. 

(A.)     HYGIENIC 

1.  The  Chest :  Requiring  an  erect  posture  and  therefore  no 
compression  of  the  Chest-walls. 

2.  The    Eyes  :    Exercising    both   eyes   equally,    entailing    a 
minimum  of  effort  thus  avoiding  both  weak  and  short  sight. 

3.  The  Hand  :  No  Writers'  Cramp  from  twisted  wrist  as  in 
Sloping  Writing. 


UPRIGHT   OR   SLOPING   WRITING — WHICH?  39 

4.  The  Spine  :  Demanding  a  natural  posture,  entirely  avoid- 
ing the  painful  distortions  so  productive  of  Spinal  Curvature  in 
Sloping  Writers. 

(B )     CALIGRAPHIC 

1.  Maximum    Legibility  :    Proved    both    geometrically    and 
optically. 

2.  Maximum  Excellence  :  Proved  by  universal  experience  of 
teachers. 

3.  Maximum   Individuality  :  The  greatest   scope  for   variety 
being  afforded. 

4.  Maximum  Uniformity  :  The  vertical  downstroke  requiring 
the  minimum  amount  of  imitative  ability. 

(C.)     ECONOMICAL 

1.  In  Time  :  From  30  to  40  per  cent,  saving,  Vertical  Writing 
being  more  quickly  written,  read  and  taught  than  any  slanting 
style. 

2.  In   Labour  :  Vertical  Writing  is  the  easiest  to-  write  and 
easiest  to  read. 

3.  In  space  :  From   30  to  40   per   cent,  saved,   as   Vertical 
Writing  is  the  most  Compact  that  cnn  be  produced. 

4.  In  Expense  :  Involving  not  only  less  Time    Labour  and 
Space   but   requiring  about  half  to   two-thirds   the   amount   of 
Material  used  in  other  systems. 

(D.)     EDUCATIONAL 

1.  Organisation  :  The  writers  are  arranged  in  a  more  orderly 
and  systematic  manner. 

2.  Discipline  :  The  tendency  to  nudge  or  jolt   is  removed  ; 
sprawling  is  avoided  ;  much  disorder  is  thus  prevented.     Talking 
is  more  difficult,  more  easily  detected  and  more  easily  suppressed 


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48  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER  IV 

SIZE,    THICKNESS,    CONTINUITY,    ETC.,    OF   WRITING 

HAVING  determined  the  direction  that  our  Writing  shall  take,  it 
remains  to  settle  such  matters  as  the  size,  thickness,  closeness, 
roundness  and  continuity  (or  otherwise)  of  the  strokes,  letters  and 
words,  with  special  and  final  reference  to  their  shape  or  outline. 

THE  SIZE 

We  are  not  here  concerned  so  much  as  to  the  size  of  ordinary 
Script  writing  as  with  the  size  of  the  letters  and  words  which 
those  who  are  just  learning  to  write  in  our  schools  shall  be  required 
to  imitate.  Individuality  will  ever  assert  itself  in  limiting  the  size 
of  every  day  caligraphy,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance 
whether  beginners  ought  to  commence  with  a  very  large  bold  style, 
heavy  and  unwieldy,  or  with  a  small  light  hand  quite  the  reverse. 
The  books  afford  us  very  little  assistance  ;  Manuals  of  method 
differ  ;  Text  books  on  handwriting  vary  or  ignore  the  question 
altogether  ;  and  Copy  Books  are  still  more  bewilderingly  diversi- 
fied. Who  is  to  decide  ?  Is  it  preferable  to  begin  with  the  largest 
sizes  and  styles  found  in  Fig.  3  (page  4)  or  with  the  smallest  in 

Fig-  4  (P-  5)? 

There  is  a  startling  contrast  between  the  extremes,  and  the 
world  is  to  believe  that  each  specimen  is  the  best,  the  orthodox 
one.  Many  are  found  who  advocate  the  large  heavy  writing,  their 
argument  being  that  it  stretches  the  muscles,  imparts  freedom 
and  elasticity  to  the  fingers,  and  secures  a  correspondingly  desi- 
rable elegance  and  boldness  to  the  style.  The  reply  to  this  by 
those  who  prefer  a  much  smaller  size  is,  that  by  commencing 
with  such  a  large  hand  for  little  fingers  and  afterwards  gradually 


SIZE,   THICKNESS,   CONTINUITY,    ETC.,   OF   WRITING      49 

diminishing  to  small  hand  for  fingers  of  a  larger  growth,  not 
only  is  nature  outraged,  but  the  progress  of  the  juveniles  is  seri- 
ously retarded  in  the  elementary  stages ;  and  furthermore  the 
mind  is  demoralised  by  the  repeated  but  fruitless  efforts  to  attain 
the  unattainable,  for  the  infantile  fingers  can  never  succeed  in 
imitating  the  Copy,  and  it  is  not  until  years  after,  when  a  child's 
fingers  have  acquired  both  length  and  command  of  the  pen, 
that  he  is,  if  indetd  ever,  able  to  reproduce  with  some  degree 
of  satisfaction  the  exceedingly  difficult  combination  of  hair 
lines,  tapering  curves,  and  long  thick  strokes  of  his  elaborate 
Copy. 

But  again,  such  abnormally  large-sized  writing  can  only  be 
produced  by  what  is  called  the  whole-arm  movement,  a  movement 
which  is  now  condemned  by  the  great  majority  of  authorities  in 
Cahgraphy,  because  of  the  wasteful  expenditure  of  energy  which 
it  entails  on  the  writer.  And  this  whole-arm  movement  is  next 
to  impossible  and  impracticable  with  young  children.  Juveniles 
cannot  write  in  a  copy  book  as  they  would  draw  on  a  black- 
board. Anything  beyond  a  finger  and  thumb  movement  is  to  be 
deprecated  with  beginners  and  certainly  with  pupils  at  school,  as 
it  is  a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  it. 

Passing  therefore  from  these,  what  about  the  smallest  size 
submitted  in  Fig.  4,  p.  5  ?  It  can  be  successfully  urged  against 
this  specimen  that  the  size  is  too  small  for  a  child  of  tender  years 
to  appreciate,  and  that  it  is  vain  to  exptct  anything  like  a  bold 
free  style  from  those  who  begin  with  such  a  diminutive  size.  A 
good  medium  hand  is  to  be  preferred  to  either  extreme,  and  is  pro- 
ductive of  the  best  results. 

It  seems  absurd  to  imagine  that  children  just  learning  to  write 
can  use  the  pen  with  such  dexterity  as  to  produce  even  fair 
imitations  of  a  word  like  "  Permutation"  or  "  Workmanship,"  and 
on  the  other  hand  such  letters  as  those  in  the  smallest  size 
require  such  delicacy  in  their  formation  that  they  present  almost 
equal  obstacles.  A  fair  medium  size  where  the  strokes  and 
curves  are  bold  enough  to  strike  the  eye  and  present  an  indi- 
viduality of  their  own  are  more  easily  grasped  or  apprehended  and 


50  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

are  large  enough  to  ensure  freedom,  and  still  small  enough  for  the 
tiny  fingers  to  manipulate  without  much  effort. 

Thickness. — With  reference  to  the  thickness  of  the  down- 
strokes  it  may  be  asserted  without  hesitation  that  all  heavy 
writing  is  to  be  condemned.  On  the  sound  principle  that  a  child 
should  be  taught  that  which  has  to  be  utilised  in  after  life,  heavy 
or  ponderously  thick  down  strokes  are  ruled  out  of  court,  since 
the  easiest  quickest  and  best  writing  is  that  in  which  there  is  a 
minimum  of  distinction  between  the  up  and  down  lines. 

Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  with  the  majority  of  writers  no 
effort  whatever  is  put  forth  to  thicken  the  down  strokes,  what 
extra  body  there  is  in  them  being  due  to  the  facility  with  which 
the  parts  of  the  nib  separate  when  tracing  a  down  stroke  with 
even  the  weight  or  normal  pressure  of  the  hand  upon  the  pen. 
The  best  headlines  then  should  have  as  little  thickness  as  possible  : 
of  necessity  the  larger  or  longer  the  stroke  the  more  body  is 
naturally  given  to  it  to  render  it  steady  and  even. 

Let  the  aim  be  to  secure  a  minimum  of  thickness  since  every 
additional  degree  of  intensity  only  demands  an  extra  and  wasteful 
expenditure  of  force  that  speedily  wearies,  and  a  profusion  of  ink 
that  frequently  smudges  or  smears.  A  further  reason  in  favour  of 
thin  or  light  as  opposed  to  thick  or  heavy  writing  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  only  an  insignificant— we  might  almost  say  fractional 
percentage  of  pupils  can  ever  hope  to  become  proficient  in 
writing  the  heavy  style,  it  being  remarkably  difficult  to  accomplish. 
If  partisans  of  the  heavy  downstrokes  be  yet  unconvinced  we 
can  produce  a  still  more  potent  reason  against  them  and  it  is  this, 
that  of  all  things,  thick  writing  is  most  conducive  to  Writer  < 
Cramp.  The  more  muscular  force  is  exerted  in  the  act  of  writing 
the  sooner  those  muscles  are  fatigued  and  strained,  and  it  is  sell 
evident  that  thick  writing  expends  or  requires  much  more  energy 
than  thin.  We  confess  our  inability  to  discover  where  the  virtue 
of  thick  writing  lies ;  the  light-stroke  writers  are  quicker  and  better 
in  their  work ;  and  the  thin  writing,  or  the  caligraphy  that  consists 
of  one  almost  uniform  thickness,  is  quite  as  legible  as  any  other 
Teachers  should  teach  a  free  light  style  of  writing,  guarding  theif 


SIZE,   THICKNESS,   CONTINUITY,   ETC.,  OF   WRITING      $1 

pupils  against  hard  downstrokes,  the  result  will  then  be  better 
work  and  less  labour. 

Junction. — What  must  have  often  struck  the  reader  as  a 
serious  anomaly  in  the  prevailing  styles  or  series  of  Headlines  is 
the  mode  of  joining  the  letters  of  a  word  together.  The  general 
rule  has  been  to  join  all  letters  exactly  in  the  middle  and  this 
rule  necessitates  the  lifting  of  the  pen  at  nearly  every  junction 
and  frequently  once  or  twice  in  the  formation  of  a  single  letter. 
Now  it  may  fairly  be  argued  that,  as  Continuity  in  Writing  is  one 
of  the  pre-eminent  elements  of  speed :  a  system  of  connection 
which  involves  the  incessant  lifting  of  the  pen  must  be  diametri- 
cally opposed  to  such  continuity,  and  therefore  absolutely  inimical 
to  a  maximum  of  rapidity.  Consequently  the  principle  of  joining 
both  parts  of  letters  and  whole  letters  at  the  top  and  bottom  is 
now  fast  superseding  the  central  junction  just  referred  to,  and 
thus  Continuity  and  the  highest  speed  are  both  attained. 

Even  as  early  as  the  year  1815  a  Writer  on  this  subject  (G.  B. 
King)  says  in  a  note  "  Every  word  should  be  finished 
"  before  removing  the  pen,"  he  thus  recognised  the  full 
value  of  the  principle  of  Continuity  for  rapid  writing.  A  wise 
teacher  will  not  only  cultivate  this  essential  by  and  through  the 
ordinary  Copy  Book,  he  will  give  the  more  advanced  scholars 
frequent  exercise  in  writing  entire  lines  of  words  without  lifting 
the  pen,  save  to  begin  a  fresh  line.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly 
impressed  upon  our  teachers  that  the  laws  and  rules  which 
determine  shape,  size,  direction  and  junction  of  strokes  and 
letters  are  not  fixed  and  immutable  but  arbitrary  and  conven- 
tional ;  that  at  any  rate  the  caligraphy  fantastic  and  ornate  as  it 
certainly  was,  of  a  past  age  must  not  dictate  to  us  of  the  present  : 
the  exigencies  of  to-day  must  modify  the  writing  of  yesterday  and 
determine  what  it  is  to  be. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  pernicious  effects  of  the  non- continu- 
ous principle  I  would  instance  one  letter  received  recently  from  a 
high  Educational  Authority.  The  address  on  the  envelope  con- 
sisted of  nine  words  containing  altogether  forty-nine  letters.  The 
pen  should  have  been  lifted  nine  times;  it  was  lifted  not  less 

B2 


52  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

than  fifty-four  times  not  including  dots,  crosses  and  punctuation. 
The  letter  contained  seventy- seven  words  and  exclusive  of  dots  &c. 
the  pen  should  have  been  lifted  only  seventy-seven  times.  Can 
it  be  credited  that  it  was  lifted  from  the  paper  Three  hundred 
and  Fifty  times,  and  that  it  thus  made  three  hundred  and  fifty 
separate  strokes  ?  Calculate,  if  it  be  possible,  the  labour  involved 
in  those  hundreds  of  superfluous  acts  ;  and  when  it  is  added  that 
the  gentleman  in  question  is  a  most  voluminous  writer  and  author 
and  that  his  correspondence  is  immense  the  reader  will  be 
astonished  to  learn  that  he  still  survives  in  remarkably  good  health. 
But  spite  such  rare  and  phenomenal  exceptions  as  these  Continuous 
writing  is  winning  its  way  and  rapidly  becoming  universal. 

Compactness.— Writing  in  order  to  be  clear  and  legible 
should  not  be  too  compact  or  closely  written.  A  moderate  space 
between  the  letters  and  between  their  several  parts  must  be  ob- 
served otherwise  an  undesirable  indistinctness  will  ensue  seriously 
detracting  from  the  excellence  of  the  penmanship.  At  the  same 
time  a  series  of  Headlines  should  afford  ample  material  for  practice 
in  both  the  open  and  close  styles  primarily  the  former  as  if  the  latter 
be  indulged  in  too  often  a  cramped  style  will  be  cultivated  that  will 
be  very  difficult  to  cure.  The  curves,  hooks,  links,  crotchets  and 
loops  should  all  be  bold  and  round  not  narrow  or  assimilating 
to  what  is  known  as  Ladies'  Angular  hand.  As  to  the  general 
shape  of  the  letters  short  loops,  finals  and  simple  capitals  must 
obtain.  Elaborate  flourishes,  ornate  curves,  graceful  loops  and 
elegant  finals  belong  to  the  department  of  Ornamental  Penman- 
ship now  nearly  obsolete,  they  are  altogether  inappropriate  to  any 
system  of  plain  Handwriting.  The  object  of  every  teacher  of 
writing  should  be  to  have  each  and  every  letter  formed  with  the 
shortest  line  or  lines  possible,  consistent  with  perfect  shape  and 
legibility,  as  not  only  will  the  labour  of  teaching  and  learning  be 
thus  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  but  many  other  equally 
desirable  results  will  be  brought  about. 

When  considering  the  shapes  of  letters  it  will  be  wise  to  specially 
examine  a  certain  number  of  them  about  which  ideas  are  both 
vague  and  various.  For  instance  shall  we  have  in  a  course  of  writing 


SIZE,   THICKNESS,   CONTINUITY,    ETC.,   OF    WRITING      53 

lessons  or  copies  two  kinds  of  1,  h,  b,  k  and  f  ?  These  letters 
being  geneially  made  in  large  hand  without  the  loop  but  in  small 
hand  with  it.  Common  sense  replies  Certainly  not  !  Why  should 
we  ?  The  rule  is  not  consistently  observed  in  the  first  place,  for 
the  lower  loop  letters  remain  unchanged,  and  the  letter  f  is  some- 
times deprived  of  its  upper  loop  and  at  other  times  of  its  lower. 
It  is  more  easy  and  natural  to  make  a  loop,  uniformity  therefore 
should  rule  the  question 
and  teach  writers  that 
shape  of  letter  they  will 
adopt  in  their  future  life 
and  practice.  How  diffi- 
cult too,  if  not  impossible 
it  is  for  young  children  to 
draw  those  tremendously 
long  and  rigidly  right 
lines  !  How  seldom  they 

,..,-,.  .  FIG.  23. 

ever  do  it  !     Fig.  23  is  an 

average  specimen  of  the  strokes  which  infantile  fingers  are  sup- 
posed to  make.  In  conclusion  it  should  be  noted  that  in  actual 
script  work  neither  the  size  nor  the  shape  of  the  letters  under 
consideration  is  ever  required.  Taking  the  small  letters  we 
observe  that  r  has  been  the  cause  of  much  controversy.  Shall 
it  be  the  ordinary  script  form  or  the  Roman  type  outline  (see 
p.  95,  Fig.  27)?  To  hear  the  several  champions  hold  forth  on 
the  claims  of  their  respective  outlines  one  might  imagine  that  there 
were  numerous  vital  questions  involved  in  the  discussion,  whilst  in 
fact  there  is  nothing  but  the  most  trivial  of  differences  and  the 
most  imperceptible  of  advantages  on  either  side.  Both  forms  are 
good  as  initial,  medial  or  final,  and  what  the  first  or  script  form 
boasts  of  in  the  matter  of  speed — for  it  is  undoubtedly  more 
quickly  made  than  its  rival — is  counteracted  to  a  great  extent  b)' 
its  inferiority  as  to  legibility  when  in  union  with  certain  other 
letters.  The  very  absence  of  any  weighty  reasons  will  we  fear 
prolong  the  agitation  to  an  indefinite  extent  if  indeed  it  does  not 
prevent  entirely  any  positive  and  ultimate  decision. 


54  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

Two  forms  of  e  are  also  practised,  the  script  and  type  outlines 
(see  p.  95).  There  can  be  no  hesitation  here  as  to  which  is  pre- 
ferable. The  reduced  capital  may  be  more  ornate  but  it  is  neither 
so  legible  nor  so  rapidly  written.  It  should  consequently  be  dis- 
countenanced and  discarded  in  favour  of  the  ordinary  and  simple 
form  which  assimilates  so  perfectly  in  conjunction  with  every  other 
letter  of  the  alphabet. 

Another  letter  to  be  noticed  is  s,  and  again  the  minimized  capital 
or  type  form  has  been  introduced  as  a  rival  to  the  script  and  more 
easily  written  outline.  Of  course  it  is  a  mere  fanciful  preference 
that  would  use  the  type  s,  which  whilst  it  gives  a  certain  artistic  effect 
to  the  style  retards  the  progress  of  the  writer  to  a  rather  serious  ex- 
tent. We  should  pronounce  unhesitatingly  for  the  ordinary  script 
form  of  the  sibilant  and  we  think  we  carry  nine  hundred  and  ninety- 
nine  writers  out  of  every  thousand  with  us.  Just  a  word  "en  passant" 
as  to  the  large  number  of  persons  who  are  in  the  habit,  unfortu- 
nately, of  making  a  particular  shape  of  letter  the  test  of  a  System 
of  Handwriting.  Incredible  as  it  might  seem  many  teachers  have 
denounced  Upright  Penmanship  solely  because  some  special  pet 
form  of  capital  or  small  letter  was  not  found  in  the  Series  of 
Headlines  of  the  Copybooks.  Or  on  the  other  hand  because 
some  outline  of  a  Capital  Letter  which  was  obnoxious  to  them 
had  been  introduced. 

The  small  letter  s  which  we  have  just  examined  has  been  the 
sole  basis  for  a  decision  between  Sloping  and  Vertical  Writing. 
To  judge  any  system  of  Handwriting  by  such  insignificant  tests 
is  both  irrational  and  unkind. 

Another  vexed  question  to  which  we  might  refer  is  the  vary- 
ing heights  of  the  long  letters.  Shall  there  continue  to  be  three 
or  four  sizes  of  these  long  letters,  or  shall  there  be  only  one  ? 
Common  sense,  science  and  consistency  would  say  only  one,  and 
custom  clenches  the  argument,  for  it  will  be  found  that  in  the 
current  hand  of  our  every- day  life  all  the  lengths  reduce  them- 
selves to  one  almost  universal  height.  When  this  is  so,  where 
is  the  necessity  or  advantage  in  teaching  three  different  sizes? 
Certainly  the  labour  of  teaching  would  be  diminished  if  only 


SIZE,   THICKNESS,   CONTINUITY,   ETC.,  OF   WRITING      55 

one  height  or  length  were  maintained  and  that  of  itself  would 
be  a  much  needed  and  heartily  welcomed  relief.  In  theory  and 
practice  therefore  one  and  only  one  height  is  recommended  for 
all  long  and  looped  letters  whether  above  or  below  the  line.  It 
may  not,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  will  not,  be  easy  to  attain  this  as 
so  many  series  of  Headline  Copy  Books  exist  with  diversified 
heights,  but  if  future  compilers  of  such  books  and  teachers  of 
writing  would  combine  and  co-operate  there  would  be  little  diffi- 
culty in  bringing  about  the  desired  reformation. 

In  recapitulation,  to  sum  up  the  essentials  of  an  ideal  hand- 
writing that  shall  fulfil  the  requirements  of  Hygiene,  the  demands 
of  Caligraphic  canons  and  the  needs  of  a  mixed  community  it  has 
been  proved  that  such  writing  must  be  Upright,  Continuous, 
Simple  and  Plain,  with  short  loops,  and  a  minimum  of  thickness. 
If  such  a  style  and  system  be  generally  adopted  and  taught 
there  will  result  a  generation  of  writers  wonderfully  superior  to 
the  present  generation  of  scribblers  whose  penmanship  will  be 
a  credit  instead  of  a  disgrace  to  their  country. 

By  minimum  of  thickness  it  must  not  be  understood  that 
the  very  thin  hair  lines,  quite  impossible  of  reproduction  with 
a  pen,  are  meant — as  head  lines  should  present  an  imitation 
or  reproduction  of  actual  pen  writing.  The  very  delicate 
engraver's  work  proves  discouraging  to  the  pupil  because 
impossible  of  reproduction. 


56  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER  V 

HEADLINE   OR   BLANK    COPY   BOOKS — WHICH? 

THE  subject  of  this  Chapter  is  one  of  the  first  importance. 
What  kind  of  Copy  Rooks  shall  be  employed  ?  Are  they  to  be 
Blank  copying  books  or  are  they  to  have  engraved  headlines  ? 
There  is  almost  a  consensus  of  opinion  in  favour  of  the  latter,  an 
almost  endless  variety  of  Headline  Copy-Books  testifying  to  the 
superiority  which  in  the  judgment  of  the  great  mass  of  teachers 
is  to  be  found  in  the  books  provided  with  these  set  copies,  one  or 
more  on  each  page.  Nevertheless  during  the  past  few  years  an 
agitation  has  been  encouraged  to  establish  the  use  of  Blank  Copy- 
ing Books,  and  this  agitation  has  been  fanned  and  fostered  by 
certain  officials  in  the  Educational  Sphere  who  shall  be  nameless. 
The  Theory  proposes  that  writing  should  be  taught  exclusively 
from  the  Blackboard  and  that  children  should  use  plain-ruled 
blank  books  instead  of  the  Headline  Copy  Books  hitherto  in 
vogue.  "  Blank  Copy  Books  and  Blackboard  Teac  ir.g" 
is  the  cry.  Exception  must  at  once  be  taken  to  this  watchword 
phrase  as  it  is  ambiguous  and  delusive,  because  it  insinuates  that 
Blackboard  teaching  is  as  scarce  an  element  in  to-day's  system 
and  practice  as  the  Blank  Copy  Books  are,  which  is  contrary  to 
fact.  Every  teacher  knows  that  Blackboard  demonstration  and  illus- 
tration are  an  essential  factor  in  existing  methods  of  teaching  writing 
with  Headline  Copy  Books.  Every  Training  College  inculcates  it. 
Every  Educational  Manual  imperatively  prescribes  it,  and  every 
true  teacher  to  the  full  extent  of  his  ability  and  opportunity  prac- 
tises it.  In  this  chapter  we  have  not  to  consider  the  question  of 
Blackboard  instruction  at  all,  that  having  been  settled  by  universal 
consent  long  long  ago,  but  we  have  to  investigate  the  merits  of 


HEADLINE   OR   BLANK   COPY    BOOKS— WHICH?         57 

Blank  Copy  Books  as  opposed  to  Headline  Copy  Books  and  to 
answer  the  query  with  which  this  chapter  began  viz.  :  "What  kind 
of  Copy  Books  shall  be  used  ?  " 

So  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  external  sources  the  chief  if 
not  the  only  reason  urged  for  the  adoption  of  Blank  Books  is  that 
under  existing  conditions,  where  Headline  Books  are  adopted,  the 
temptation  to  neglect  Blackboard  instruction  is  too  strong  for  the 
great  body  of  overworked  teachers,  particularly  assistant  teachers, 
to  resist.  It  is  said  that  with  Headline  Books  the  teacher  is  too 
often  satisfied  with  merely  having  the  books  distributed  to  the 
class  and  after  starting  the  pupils  to  their  work  leaving  them  to 
their  own  devices  and  resources  for  the  whole  of  the  interval 
devoted  to  writing. 

Assuming  (for  the  purpose  of  argument)  that  these  premises 
.are  true  it  is  not  certain  that  the  conclusion  is  much  to  be  deplored 
as  thousands  of  teachers  would  not  consider  such  a  mode  of 
teaching  as  an  unmitigated  or  serious  evil.  It  is  asserted  more- 
over that  the  only  way  to  ensure  faithful  discharge  of  duty  in 
teaching  writing  is  to  provide  nothing  but  blank  Copy  Books  for 
the  scholars  to  write  in.  Assistants  will  then  be  compelled  to  utilize 
the  Blackboard  (at  least  so  far  as  to  set  the  copies)  and  thus 
children  will  have  the  immense  advantage  of  seeing  the  writing 
actually  produced,  will  observe  the  modes  of  junction  and  will  also 
witness  the  tracing  of  the  several  complexities  of  formation  which 
so  painfully  abound  in  our  script  alphabet  (at  any  rate  so  far  as 
they  choose  to  attend  to  it).  Other  reasons  for  the  proposed  sub- 
stitution of  Blank  Copying-Books  are  however  to  be  found  and 
will  be  fully  discussed  in  the  proper  place.  Meanwhile  it  will  be 
advisable  to  look  a  little  more  closely  into  this  proposed  security 
against  dereliction  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  into  the 
incalculable  ( !)  and  otherwise  unattainable  benefit  on  the  part  of  the 
scholar.  It  certainly  would  seem  to  the  ordinary  intelligence  that 
if  any  given  teacher  were  either  too  indifferent  or  too  busy  to  use 
the  Blackboard  in  class  when  enjoying  the  substantial  aid  of 
Headline  Copy  Books,  it  will  be  still  more  unlikely  or  still  more 
impracticable  for  him  when  deprived  of  that  aid  and  when 


58  MANUAL  OF    HANDWRITING 

burdened  with  the  extra  duty  of  compiling,  arranging,  and  setting 
the  copies  himself.  Surely  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  when  a 
teacher  through  overwork  is  obliged  to  omit  certain  items,  we  are 
to  secure  the  performance  of  those  items  by  increasing  his  work 
and  multiplying  its  details.  Is  it  not  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
the  assistant  who  was  previously  content  to  allow  his  pupils  to 
imitate  or  parody  the  Copy  Book  headlines  without  note,  comment 
or  reference  to  the  Blackboard,  as  an  effective  adjunct  to  his 
teaching,  will  be  more  than  satisfied  that  his  duty  is  performed  to 
the  full  when  he  has  hastily  or  otherwise  traced  on  that  Black- 
board the  writing  copy  for  the  day  ?  Obviously  there  is  not  the 
smallest  inducement  nor  guarantee  in  the  projected  innovation  that 
any  teacher  will  be  one  whit  more  conscientious  or  even  puncti- 
lious in  his  Blackboard  demonstration,  but  there  evidently  are  for 
many  reasons  positive  and  stronger  temptations  than  before  to 
entirely  disregard  the  responsibility. 

But  what  of  the  benefit  to  the  pupil  in  seeing  the  master  (or 
mistress)  write  the  Copy  on  the  Blackboard  ?  If  there  is  any  real 
advantage  in  such  a  sight  it  is  just  as  available  and  profitable  in 
conjunction  with  Headline  Copy  Books,  and  can  therefore  be 
employed  equally  in  both  kinds  of  writing  books.  It  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  show  however  that  the  total  absence  of  this  exaggerated 
boon  is  hardly  a  material  loss  to  the  scholars.  The  argument  on 
these  lines  may  therefore  be  summarily  dismissed  as  being  worth- 
less in  advocating  the  claims  of  Blank  Copying  books. 

If  the  new  Candidate  for  public  support  be  more  particularly 
examined  the  investigator  is  surprised  at  the  number  of  objections 
and  defects  which  immediately  start  into  view,  any  one  of  which 
in  itself  is  or  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  issue. 

IMPERFECT  MODELS  OR  COPIES 

Of  course,  and  evidently,  the  first  and  one  of  the  gravest 
defects  in  Blank  Copying  Books  is  the  absence  of  Perfect  or 
Accurate  Copies  and  the  presence  of  nothing  save  Imperfect  and 
Inaccurate  Models.  Pupils  are  to  have  plain-ruled  books  in 


HEADLINE   OR   BLANK   COPY  BOOKS -WHICH?        $9 

order  to  fill  them  up  with  approximate  imitations  of  the  defective 
Blackboard  models.  They  are  never  to  see  anything  outside 
these  blank  books  but  the  very  imperfect  writing — often  indeed 
little  better  than  caricatures — of  their  respective  teachers.  They 
are  never  to  see  anything  inside  their  books  but  their  own  faulty  and 
distorted  outlines.  Nothing  from  cover  to  cover  but  indifferent, 
crude  and  in  most  instances  wretchedly  bad  writing.  Looking  over 
the  pages  of  his  book,  as  the  pupil  is  sure  to  do  again  and  again, 
he  sees  no  standard  of  perfection  to  counteract  the  demoralising 
influence  of  a  continual  familiarity  with  that  which  is  essentially 
inferior — and  inevitably  the  writer's  own  Scrawl  becomes  his  ideal 
which  the  occasional  glimpse  of  his  teacher's  flourishing  on  the 
Blackboard,  when  setting  the  Copy,  entirely  fails  to  remove  or 
destroy.  And  when  may  we  expect  a  child  to  rise  above  his 
ideal  ?  A  remarkable  rejoinder  is  here  met  with.  "  The  boys  or 
"girls  will  be  forced  to  look  at  the  Copy  on  the  Blackboard  when 
"writing  in  blank  books.  Whereas  in  Headline  Copy  Books 
"pupils  simply  copy  the  Headline  once  and  then -proceed  to 
"imitate  their  own  handiwork,  making  mistakes,  repeating  them 
"  and  growing  worse  and  worse  until  they  reach  the  last  line  in 
"  the  page.*  When  they  use  blank  books  they  cannot  perpetrate  this 
"  abomination.  In  blank  books  the  writing  will  improve  line  by 
"  line  down  the  page,  and  we  thus  get  rid  once  and  for  ever  of 
"that  annoyance  to  teachers  which  results  in  such  disastrous 
"  Scribble." 

Is  not  this  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  nonsense  or  obtuseness  ?  How 
shall  we,  how  can  we  reply  to  these  statements  ?  Is  there  any 
conceivable  cause  why  a  lazy  or  stupid  child,  who  will  not  take 
the  trouble  to  look  at  and  try  to  imitate  a  headline  under  his  very 
eyes  and  only  two  or  three  inches  from  his  pen,  will  exeit  himself 
still  more  energetically  to  refer  to  and  try  to  imitate  a  copy  ten  to 
twenty  feet  distant  from  him  ?  Is  there  not  rather  every  reason 
to  conclude,  that  a  page  of  blank  book  writing  will,  as  it  proceeds 
downwards,  deteriorate  in  a  much  greater  degree  than  a  page  of 
Headline  writing,  where  the  writer  can  hardly  avoid  looking  at  the 
perfect  model  times  and  again  whilst  the  lines  are  being  written  ? 

*  Reproduction  or  imitation  of  pupil's  own  writing  can  be  entirely  overcome  by 
using  the  writing  pads  which  are  designed  especially  to  overcome  this  and  other  diffi- 
culties in  teaching. 


6O  MANUA^  OF   HANDWRITING 

If  it  is  proposed  to  supply  a  panacea  for  this  disease  of  page 
degeneration  by  withdrawing  the  only  sentinel  that  keeps  guard 
over  the  page,  by  removing  the  only  standard  of  comparison 
contrast  and  appeal  from  every  leaf  of  the  Copybook,  by  getting 
rid  of  the  only  check — ever  present  check — upon  such  deterio- 
ration the  remedy  is  worse  than  the  disease  and  is  devoid  of  the 
most  essential  ingredient  in  such  specific  viz.  a  perfect  Model  to 
Copy  from. 

However  let  us  enquire  what  is  offered  by  way  of  substitute 
for  this  Perfect  Model?  What  does  the  Blank  Book  System  offer 
in  lieu  of  a  perfectly  engraved  Headline?  Blackboard  Copies, 
written,  sketched,  or  scribbled  by  Principals,  Assistants,  Pupil 
Teachers,  and  Monitors  !  When  it  is  an  admitted  fact  that 
about  three-fourths  of  all  the  teachers  in  the  United  States  are 
really  unable  to  write  a  creditable,  much  less  a  faultless,  copy  on 
the  Blackboard  where  are  the  specimens  of  good  caligraphy  to 
come  from  ?  *  Until  the  System  of  Upright  Penmanship  becomes 
general  there  will  not  be  the  remotest  possibility  of  our  teachers 
becoming  qualified  Writing  Masters.  Why  then  agitate  for  the 
impossible  and  expect  from  our  teachers  what  they  are  utterly  unable 
to  supply?  No  rational  mind  can  imagine  that  the  faulty  copy 
drawn  in  chalk  on  a  Blackboard  can  or  will  be  accepted  as  an 
adequate  substitute  for  the  carefully  engraved  copy  in  the 
Headline  Book.  Scores,  yea  hundreds  of  these  Blackboard 
copies,  written  by  every  rank  of  teacher,  have  come  undei  our 
observation,  and  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  in  the  large 
proportion  of  them  no  Inspector  would  pass  them  as  fair.  One 
or  two  in  every  score  might  possibly  approach  to  the  regularity 
and  accuracy  required  in  a  writing  Copy,  but  this  proportion  is 
more  fanciful  than  real.  Is  the  principle  underlying  this  inno- 
vation tolerated  in  other  branches  of  a  schoo1  curriculum  ?  I  )o 
we  adorn  the  walls  of  our  School-rooms  with  base  parodies  of 
geographical,  botanical,  and  zoological  subjects  liiiined  by  the 
veriest  tyros  in  art  ? 

Do  we  furnish  art  classes  with  drawing  copies,  or  physiological 

*  See  note,  p.  72. 


HEADLINE   OR   BLANK   COPY   BOOKS— WHICH  ?       6l 

diagrams,  roughly  and  hurriedly  outlined  by  mere  beginners  or 
untalented  novices  ?  Never  !  Do  we  not  the  rather  take  infinite 
pains  to  secure  the  brightest,  the  truest,  and  the  best  maps, 
diagrams,  and  illustrations  which  shall  have  been  produced  by 
our  finest  experts  or  specialists  in  their  respective  departments? 

Why  then,  in  a  subject  that  pertains  to  every  man's  daily  life,  is 
it  suggested  to  offer  nothing  but  second-  or  third-rate  models,  the 
creations  in  great  part  of  ignorant,  inexperienced  or  unqualified 
individuals  for  our  children  to  imitate  ?  A  system  of  this  kind 
will  inevitably  lower  the  standard  of  penmanship  and  begin  a 
decline  in  the  art  of  caligraphy ;  for  the  removal  of  an  established 
and  high  standard,  and  the  substitution  of  an  imperfect  and 
inferior  standard  can  only  be  followed  by  one  result,  and  that  a 
fatally  disastrous  one. 

Further,  the  advantage  of  seeing  a  Master  (even  a  good  writer) 
write  a  copy  on  the  blackboard  is  almost  purely  chimerical,  for 
unless  the  line  is  a  small  hand  copy  the  chalk  will  not  and  does 
not  make  the  strokes  thin  and  thick  to  meet  the  exigencies  of 
the  writing,  and  the  strokes  have  to  be  painted  or  thickened  by  re- 
peated applications  of  the  crayon,  which  utterly  destroys  the  analogy 
between  the  two  acts.  Then  the  teacher  does  not  hold  the  chalk 
as  the  pupil  holds  the  pen,  nor  does  he  write  the  Copy  through 
in  the  same  way  that  they  are  instructed  to  do.  He  is  standing, 
they  are  sitting  ;  He  writes  or  draws,  erases,  reproduces,  repeats, 
repairs,  thickens  and  revises  the  whole  after  being  once  traced, 
they  are  forbidden  to  do  any  of  these  things  :  where  is  the 
similarity  or  the  help  ?  After  the  most  elementary  stages  there 
exists  no  necessity  whatever  for  this  particular  kind  of  Blackboard 
instruction  It  is  not  the  setting  of  a  Copy  nor  the  seeing  of  a 
Copy  written  that  is  needed,  but  explanation  and  illustration  of 
the  Copy  after  it  has  been  written.  The  Conclusion  is  irresistible 
looking  at  the  question  from  every  standpoint ;  that  the  absence  of 
a  Perfect  Model  and  the  substitution  of  a  .Hybrid  having  all 
possible  degrees  of  disparity  to  an  artistic  and  scientific  original, 
must  be  fraught  with  consequences  fatal  to  any  satisfac-ory 
development  of  the  science  and  art  of  handwriting.  Contrast  the 


62  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

projected  state  of  things  with  that  which  obtains  under  the 
Headline  Copy  Book  System,  where  the  highest  possible  standard 
of  engraved  Models  is  aimed  at  by  Publishers  and  Teachers  alike, 
and  where  a  praiseworthy  rivalry  is  perpetually  evolving  new  sets 
and  series  of  fresh  beauty  or  increased  excellence,  and  there  can 
be  but  one  opinion  on  the  question.  Quench  this  spirit  of  emula- 
tion, withdraw  from  circulation  every  Headline  Copy  Book,  throw 
Teachers  and  scholars  alike  on  the  resources  of  Individual  vari- 
ation and  Blackboard  Standard,  and  the  final  decline  of  Penman- 
ship, all  true  Handwriting,  will  have  been  inaugurated. 

Irregular  and  Varying  Models.— Again  it  is  not  only  that 
these  proposed  Blackboard  Copies  are  imperfect  and  defective, 
they  are  also  Irregular  and  Varying.  The  perpetual  changes 
that  must  occur  in  the  style  of  the  models  set  on  the  Blackboard 
— changes  that  in  thousands  of  cases  will  not  be  yearly,  or  even 
monthly  but  weekly  and  almost  daily — are  objectionable  and  most 
mischievous  in  their  tendency.  As  an  illustration  let  us  glance  at 
the  career  of  a  Public  School  pupil  under  the  regime  of  Blank 
Copy  Books,  and  in  the  hands  of  Blank  Book  advocates.  The 
lad  enters  Standard  One,  where  he  is  taught  the  principles  of  for- 
mation, and  where  his  practical  education  consists  in  tracing  or 
imitating  copies  written  on  the  Blackboard  by  his  teacher.  Cer- 
tain elements  of  outline,  slope,  spacing  and  junction  are  learned, 
but  the  lad  never  sees  a  perfect  model  of  writing  through  the 
whole  year,  and  the  models  that  he  does  see  of  necessity  vary 
repeatedly  ;  sometimes  carefully  written,  sometimes  the  contrary  ; 
sometimes  one  size,  frequently  a  different  size  ;  occasionally  one 
slope,  generally  some  other  slope  ;  possibly—  for  accidents  will 
happen  in  the  best  regulated  institutions  —  on  rare  occasions  no 
copy  at  all  and  the  class  will  be  told  to  repeat  the  previous  head- 
line, which  they  do,  and  to  improve  upon  it  which  they  as  surely 
do  not  On  entering  Standard  Two  where  the  teacher  affects  a 
less  sloping  style  of  writing,  the  pupil  is  introduced  into  a  new 
world — a  world  of  round  steep  characters  which  require  fresh 
effort  to  appreciate  and  acquire  ;  and  an  entirely  different  posture 
of  body  and  arm  in  its  production.  Surmounting  the  obstacles 


HEADLINE   OR   BLANK   COPY  BOOKS— WHICH  ?         63 

thus  thrown  in  his  path  by  the  System  under  examination,  Standard 
Three  is  entered  where  a  continuous  and  very  oblique  style  of 
writing  obtains.  The  pupil  commences  de  novo  so  to  speak  his 
instruction  in  Caligraphy,  and  by  the  end  of  the  School-year  has 
attained  to  considerable  proficiency  in  his  new  mode  only  to  find 
that  when  he  reaches  the  Fourth  Standard  it  is  almost  worse  than 
useless. 

Writing  here  assumes  quite  a  novel  character,  a  kind  of  com- 
posite or  blend  of  several  styles.  The  teacher  has  peculiar  ideas 
as  to  junction,  length  of  loops,  construction  shape  &c.,  all  of 
which  the  bewildered  pupil  is  expected  to  rapidly  absorb,  assimi- 
late and  practise.  Finally  in  the  stages  of  the  5th  6th  and  yth 
standards  the  hapless  youth  is  treated  to  a  series  of  contradictory 
lessons,  and  conflicting  directions,  unaccompanied  all  through  by 
any  perfect  copies  or  examples  which  would  serve  as  a  standard 
for  reference,  or  a  model  for  imitation.  During  all  these  years 
the  victim  has  never  seen  a  specimen  of  perfect  writing,  and 
the  models  that  he  has  seen  have  varied  repeatedly,  sometimes 
carefully  written,  sometimes  otherwise  ;— different  teachers,  vary- 
ing and  conflicting  methods,  diverse  styles,  unequal  lengths  of 
loops,  contradictory  principles  of  construction  and  junction  ! 
the  unhappy  pupil  is  bewildered  and  overwhelmed  in  a  sea  of 
such  inconsistencies,  his  writing  is  cramped  and  weak,  and  most 
probably  ruined  for  all  future  time.  Where,  it  may  be  asked, 
in  the  whole  domain  of  Education  is  there  another  such  Comedy 
of  Errors  as  this  of  Blank  Books,  with  their  capricious  and 
protean  Blackboard  models  ?  Good  writing  is  impossible  under 
such  conditions.  Irregular  and  varying  models  are  an  unmixed 
evil  altogether  inadmissible  as  a  medium  or  agent  for  the  teaching 
of  writing. 

On  the  contrary  with  Headline  Copy  Books  the  pupil  is  sup- 
plied with  a  progressive  course  of  carefully  engraved  headlines 
in  a  comprehensive  series  of  Copy  books,  more  than  enough  to 
carry  him  through  his  entire  writing  career.  All  the  Copies  are 
to  one  pattern  ;  one  idea,  one  principle,  one  style  permeating  and 
governing  the  whole  set.  No  variation  or  contradiction  in  size. 


64  MANUAL  OF    HANDWRITING 

construction  slope  or  quality,  but  a  system  of  Penmanship  that  at 
least  is  consistent  with  itself  throughout. 

Thus  the  child  leaving  standard,  class,  or  form  one,  finds 
nothing  confusing  in  standard  two,  meets  with  everything  agree- 
able and  helpful  in  class  three,  and  to  the  highest  form  or  division 
in  his  school,  is  aided  in  his  efforts  to  shine  in  caligraphy  by  a 
series  of  perfect  and  unvarying  models,  uniform  in  their  excellence 
as  they  are  scientific  in  their  arrangement. 

Ungraded  Models. — It  will  occur  to  the  thoughtful  reader 
that  Blackboard  models  will  as  a  rule  exhibit  a  sad  lack  in  grada- 
tion. Who  is  to  see  that  the  copies  prescribed  to  the  several 
writing  classes  in  our  large  Schools  are  properly  graded,  and 
adapted  to  the  powers  and  ability  of  the  writers.  It  may  be  safely 
presumed,  that  in  an  overwhelming  proportion  the  copies  will  lie 
unsuitable  from  defective  progressive  arrangement,  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  scholars  will  be  retarded  in  a  like  ratio,  as  every 
teacher  will  recognise.  All  true  gradation  will  of  necessity  be 
neglected,  to  the  serious  endamagement  of  the  pupils,  if  that 
gradation  be  left  to  the  hap-hazard  writing  of  Teachers  on  the 
Blackboard. 

Again  the  grading  of  copies  as  to  size  —text,  round  or  small — 
and  the  judicious  blending  of  these  sizes  (a  matter  of  no  small 
importance)  can  receive  but  scant  recognition  under  the  Blank 
Book  regulations.  The  rulings  in  the  books,  and  the  sizes  on  the 
Black  board  will  seldom  harmonize  ;  in  short  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  size,  character,  words  and  sentences  have  all  to  be 
separately  and  independently  graded  in  an  appropriate  and  scien- 
tific order,  it  would  be  worse  than  foolish  to  suppose  this  could  be 
achieved  by  indiscriminate  and  improvised  copysetting  on  the 
Blackboard  by  teachers,  who  generally  speaking,  would  not  have 
devoted  two  minutes  thought  or  preparation  to  their  task. 
Efficient  grading  of  writing  models  demands  a  concentration  of 
attention,  and  an  expenditure  of  time,  that  are  simply  beyond  the 
resources  of  any  teacher  during  the  busy  hours  of  a  day's  routine. 

Moreover,  what  can  be  done  with  personal  or  individual 
grading  in  Blank  book  Classes?  It  is  an  unheard-of  phenomenon 


HEADLINE   OR    BLANK   COPY   BOOKS— WHICH  ?        65 

to  have  sixty  or  eighty  pupils  in  a  class  all  precisely  at  the  same 
stage,  all  gifted  with  the  same  receptive  capacity,  the  same 
mechanical  skill,  the  same  imitative  ability.  What  can  be  done 
when  there  is  only  one  Copy  for  the  whole  form  ?  Necessarily 
all  must  write  it  whether  they  are  able  or  not.  For  some  the 
Copy  will  be  much  too  easy,  for  others  about  right,  for  the  residue 
much  too  difficult.  As  a  rule  teachers  insist  upon  the  value  of 
individual  instruction  ;  here  the  principle  is  grossly  violated,  and 
hence  the  class  becomes  completely  disorganised  and  the  writing 
hour  proves  the  most  disagreeable  and  vexatious  in  the  day. 
Such  a  grievance  cannot  exist  where  headline  books  are  employed. 
Each  pupil  gets  a  book  exactly  suited  to  his  own  need,  and  when 
finished  the  next  is  equally  adapted  to  his  peculiar  requirements, 
or,  if  dictated  by  expediency,  the  same  book  can  be  repeated. 
Ungraded  models  may  fairly  be  considered  as  an  insuperable 
obstacle  to  the  reception  of  the  Blank  Book  system,  as  propounded 
by  its  advocates. 

Temporary  or  Transient  Models. — In  addition  to  the 
foregoing  still  another  obstruction  perplexes  the  enquirer,  when  the 
Temporary  or  Transient  nature  of  Blackboard  Models  is  con- 
sidered.* They  are  here  one  hour  and  gone  the  next,  evanescent 
as  a  dream  they  are  gone  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  They  have 
no  permanence  ;  consequently  all  opportunity  of  reference  and 
comparison  has  vanished  with  them. 

Reasoning  again  by  analogy,  our  maps,  diagrams  and  illustra- 
tions preach  to  our  children  "All  the  year  round,"  teaching, 
educating,  and  speaking  their  history  every  hour  and  every  day 
to  their  juvenile  beholders  :  they  are  not  relegated  to  the  shelves 
or  oblivion  of  a  locked -up  store  room,  but  they  are  on  exhibition 
always  and  ever. 

Similarly  ought  the  Headlines  and  Perfect  Copies  to  be  per- 
petually speaking  from  the  pages  of  the  books  and  from  the  walls 
of  the  schoolroom  to  the  pupils  : — from  the  engraved  copies  in 
the  former  and  from  the  enlarged  Alphabet  Diagrams  on  the  latter. 

It  is  by  the  daily  and  oft  repeated  sight  of  these  Headlines 
that  children  derive  their  only  mental  perception  and  conception 

F 


66  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

of  the  true  outlines  and  proportions  of  the  letters  they  have  to  re- 
produce so  frequently  ;  and  thus  their  appreciation  grows  until  an 
accurate  knowledge  is  attained,  that  imparts  cunning  to  the  hand, 
that  guides  the  fingers  in  their  caligraphic  evolutions,  and  dictates 
the  grace  and  elegance  that  find  expression  in  a  style  of  hand- 
writing, that  is  as  beautiful  as  it  is  legible. 

For  other  cogent  reasons  it  is  expedient  that  the  copies  or 
models  should  be  permanent.  It  will  be  found  that  the  members 
of  a  class  write  at  different  rates,  and  some  will  have  finished  the 
page  (or  the  line)  long  before  their  fellows. 

Certainly  the  quick  writers  can  proceed  to  a  second  copy,  but 
this  would  create  another  evil  very  widely  condemned  but  alas  too 
often  practised,  viz.,  writing  one  and  the  same  copy  for  too  long  a 
time.  Then  with  large  classes  how  impossible  to  efficiently  correct 
each  book  in  the  one  lesson.  Consequently,  the  Master  in  making 
his  rounds  is  unable  to  correct  any  back  work  even  by  comparison 
with  his  own  imperfect  Blackboard  copy,  thus  his  correction  is 
robbed  of  half  its  value. 

But  further  these  corrections  even  in  the  best  conditions,  are 
wonderfully  depreciated  by  the  consideration,  that  in  all  subsequent 
time  they  will  be  comparatively  meaningless. 

A  pupil  looking  over  his  book  sees  certain  marks  on  various 
letters  in  the  back  pages.  They  are  almost  absolutely  useless  to 
him  as  he  forgets  the  signification  of  the  marks,  and  has  no  per- 
manent model  to  refresh  his  memory,  or  to  give  him  the  clue. 

A  reply  to  this  may  be  that  the  Master  can  re-write  the  Copy 
on  the  Blackboard.  Precisely  so.  That  is  possible,  but  such  an 
act  requires  time  and  labour,  and  multiplies  details  to  an  extent 
simply  intolerable.  One  is  inclined  to  predict  that  as  the  subject 
receives  more  careful  attention,  teachers  will  conclude,  that  the 
absence  of  permanent  models  constitutes  an  objection  to  the  System 
of  Blank  Copy  Books  which  is  fatal  to  its  success  or  survival. 

Amongst  the  minor  objections  to  this  scheme  may  be  noticed 
the  promiscuous  character  of  the  subject  matter  in  Blackboard 
Copies.  They  change  with  every  variation  in  the  Teacher's  mood  ; 
trivial,  insipid,  dull,  dry,  appropriate  or  the  reverse.  This  is  not 


IIKADLlNli    OR    BLANK    COPY    BOOKS— WHICH?        67 

an  inseparable  or  necessarily  an  inherent  defect  of  the  system,  hut 
under  the  existing  state  of  things  we  fear  it  is  an  inevitable  one. 
For  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  that  Head,  Assistant,  and  Pupil 
Teachers  shall  be  able  to  compile  or  write  off  hand  series  of 
Educative  and  Consecutive  headlines.  We  would  not  unduly 
press  this  point  of  heterogeneous  headlines,  but  no  set  of  copy 
books  in  these  days  would  secure  any  approval  were  this  principle 
ignored,  as  must  generally  be  the  case  with  Blackboard  Copies  ;  so 
that  the  importance  and  principle  of  such  sequential  and  assorted 
headlines  are  satisfactorily  established  by  universal  consent  and 
practice. 

A  second  minor  difficulty  is  the  position  of  the  Blackboard  in 
relation  to  the  several  pupils  in  the  class.  It  is  a  fact  that  in 
many  schools  the  light  is  bad,  and  where  it  is  good,  myopia  or 
shortsight,  that  obtains  so  generally  amongst  schoolchildren,  will 
involve  us  in  the  same  embarrassment.  What  shall  be  done  with 
these  shortsighted  pupils  that  are  always  to  be  found  in  every 
standard  of  an  elementary  School  ?  They  are  at  a  grave  dis- 
advantage unless  special  provision  be  made  for  them. 

Then  if  they  are  placed  in  the  front  desks,  and  the  Blackboard 
is  brought  nearer  in  order  to  accommodate  them,  those  in  the 
wings  will  have  imperfect  and  one-sided  views  of  the  Copy  that 
will  render  it  practically  worthless. 

Short-sighted  pupils  render  Blank  Books  with  exclusive  Black- 
board teaching  very  unsatisfactory  if  not  prohibitory. 

A  different  class  of  objections  to  this  Theory  may  now  be 
examined,  and  in  order  to  discuss  them  we  will  assume  that  the 
classes  are  always  supplied  with  Perfect  Models,  Uniform  Models, 
Graded  Models,  and  Suitable  Models,  so  arranged  that  every  writer 
in  the  Class  commands  a  perfect  view  of  the  same  (all  of  which 
essentials  as  we  have  seen  the  System  utterly  fails  to  provide). 
However  taking  these  points  as  settled  it  is  asked,  How  will  the 
change  now  proposed  by  these  Blank- Book-Theorists  affect  our 
Teachers?  For  good  or  evil?  We  think  the  latter  and  for 
substantial  reasons.  On  the  ground  first  that  it  involves  too 
great  a  loss  of  time,  or  it  necessitates  too  great  a  sacrifice  of  time. 

F2 


68  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

The  setting  of  appropriate  and  faultless  copies  on  the  Blackboard 
every  day  is  an  additional  burden  top  hard  to  be  borne.  If  such 
an  infliction  were  imperative  it  would  end  in  setting  most  hurried 
and  inferior  copies,  and  in  frequent  undesirable  repetitions  of  the 
same  copy,  the  writing  thus  degenerating  to  an  alarming  degree. 

Not  only  will  it  thus  hamper  our  already  restricted  action  and 
further  weaken  our  already  impaired  teaching  power,  but  its  effect 
in  large  schools  will  be  both  unequal  and  oppressive,  for  usually 
there  are  some  of  the  teachers  who  cannot  write  a  copy  sufficiently 
excellent  to  serve  as  a  model,  hence  the  strain  upon  the  best 
writers  will  prove  not  only  burdensome  but  conducive  to  no  small 
amount  of  irritation,  or  at  least  to  anything  but  good  feeling  and 
harmonious  co-operation.  On  the  other  hand  the  pupils  them- 
selves are  seriously  endamaged  by  this  plan  of  Blank  Book 
writing.  Can  juveniles  imitate  a  copy  on  the  Black  Board  at  a 
distance  of  from  twelve  to  thirty  feet  as  readily,  easily,  and  as 
perfectly,  as  they  can  a  copy  not  three  inches  from  their  penpoint? 
No  one  will  deny  that  it  is  very  much  easier  to  fac-simile  a 
writing  or  drawing  copy  from  the  book,  size  for  size,  than  to  imitate 
by  reducing  the  large  sized  copies  on  a  blackboard  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  pupil.  Consequently  the  Minimum  of  Imi- 
tation is  a  feature  peculiar  to  the  Blank  Book  System  and  it  is  no 
answer  to  say  that  this  Black  Board  work  will  help  the  pupil  in  Draw- 
ing. Writing  is  of  too  great  importance  to  take  the  Subordinate- 
position  of  handmaid  to  Drawing.  Quite  the  reverse.  Drawing 
is  admittedly  the  handmaid  to  writing  and  will  take  care  of 
itself. 

The  difficulties  thus  thrown  in  the  way  of  young  beginners 
undoubtedly  protract  the  final  issue  by  retarding  the  pupils' 
progress.  Possibly  the  opponents  of  Headline  Copy  Books  have 
overlooked  the  great  loss  of  time  to  the  children  that  ensues  from 
the  adoption  of  Blank  Books.  With  conscientious  pupils  this  loss 
is  serious  indeed  and  with  careless  children  the  loss,  though  in  a 
different  way,  is  greater  still.  An  honest  child  will  repeatedly  and 
continually  stop  to  look  at  his  Blackboard  Copy,  his  rate  of  pro- 
gress is  therefore  relatively  abnormally  slow.  A  heedless  child  by 


HEADLINE   OR    BLANK    COPY    BOOKS— WHICH  ?       69 

contrast  will  hardly  ever  look  at  the  Copy  at  all,  and  its  progress 
will  necessarily  be  a  minimum. 

A  very  irritating  accompaniment  to  the  scheme  is  the  per- 
petual movement  of  the  heads  (too  often  of  the  bodies  also)  of 
the  writers  as  they  look  up  at  their  distant  copy.  The  temptation 
to  look  at  one  another  is  alas  often  too  strong  to  be  always 
successfully  resisted,  and  instead  of  a  quiet  and  uniform  attention 
to  their  Copy  Books,  as  is  the  case  with  engraved  Headlines,  there 
is  a  continual  motion  of  heads  going  on  all  over  the  Class  causing 
shakings  of  the  desk  and  grumblings  from  the  writers,  who  are 
disturbed  thereby.  Disorder  is  both  produced  and  encouraged 
by  the  practice  of  Blank  Book  writing. 

Lastly  the  influence  of  blank  Copy  Books  upon  a  chss  is  very 
disheartening.  Nothing  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  outlook, 
or  inlook  either  for  that  matter.  No  fresh  or  higher  number  of 
Headline  Copy  Book  to  anticipate,  with  its  interesting  collection 
of  instructive  sentences,  its  elegant  capitals,  and  its  modified 
style  to  stimulate  the  pupils  !  What  a  valuable  element  of  emu- 
lative Education  is  thus  lost  entirely. 

Summarising  these  defects  of  the  Blank  Book  System  we 
observe  that 

1.  It  presents  Imperfect  Models  for  imitation. 

2.  It  possesses  nothing  but  Irregular  and  Varying  Models 
which  preclude  any  consistent  system  of  Penmanship. 

3.  It   can   only  produce  Ungraded    Models   so  that  the 
essential   element   of  General   Gradation   is   both    ignored   and 
neglected. ' 

4.  It  also  offers  Transient  Models,  thus  rendering  all  true 
Correction  uncertain  or  impossible — often  the  latter. 

5.  It   can  only  give  Promiscuous  Models  which  in  the 
majority  of  instances  are  both  inappropriate  and  non-educative. 

6.  It  entirely  lacks  all  Individual  Grading  so  essential  to 
real  and  rapid  progress. 

7.  It  fails  to  provide  for  short-sighted  pupils. 

8.  It    involves    much    loss   of  time   to   and    imposes    much 
unnecessary  work  upon  the  Teacher. 


7O  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

9.  It  causes  irreparable  loss  of  time  to  the  pupils. 

10.  It  possesses  the   '  Minimum  of  Imitation." 

IT.  It  yields  the  minimum  of  Interest,  Attraction,  or  Stimula- 
tive power  to  the  pupils. 

Surveying  this  formidable  array  of  faults  and  defects  if  must 
be  granted  that  Blank  Books  can  boast  of  little  that  is  good,  and 
of  nothing  at  all  that  can  by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination  be 
considered  superior  to  Headline  Copy  Books,  more  particularly 
when  it  is  found  impossible  to  flank  it  with  any  similar  list  of 
compensating  advantages. 

Since  writing  this  chapter  a  somewhat  profuse  correspondence 
with  the  advocates  of  Blank  books  has  eliminated  all  that  can  be 
said  in  favour  of  the  system.  Most  of  the  arguments  have  already 
been  fully  met  and  confuted  in  the  preceding  pages,  but  the 
following  four  points  seem  to  call  for  special  remark. 

1.  "  All  the  children  are  at  the  same  copy  at  the  same  time." 

2.  "  No  blank  leaves  to  fill  from  absence." 

3.  "Absentees  do  not  fall  out  of  the  running  and  thus  have 
"not  to  work  at  different  copies,  scattering  energy  of  the  teacher 
"who  is  compelled  to  resort  to  individual  correction." 

4.  u  Blank  books  allow  of  Class  teaching  from  Blackboard." 
Of  these  points  No.  i  has  already  been  discussed  and  shown 

to  be  undesirable  and  (detrimental  to  true  progress.  Number  2  is 
beautifully  simple  and  innocent,  indeed  mysteriously  so.  The 
writer  of  such  a  statement  must  see  that  the  argument  is  more, 
much  more,  favourable  to  Headline  than  to  Blank  Copy  Books. 
One  illustration  will  suffice  for  points  2  and  3.  Two  children  are 
absent  from  School  say  for  a  month,  and  return  to  their  respective 
writing  classes,  one  of  which  is  taught  on  the  Blank  System  the 
other  on  the  Headline  System.  A,  enters  the  first  to  find  that  his 
schoolfellows  have  written  from  eight  to  a  dozen  copies  in  his 
absence,  that  they  have  received  8  to  12  lessons  in  the  same  period, 
an  1  that  therefore  both  in  theory  and  practice  they  are  far  ahead 
of  him.  He  is  left  hopelessly  in  the  rear,  despairingly  in  the 
lurch.  We  are  told  he  has  no  blank  pages  to  fill  up — aside  we 
in  ^ht  suggest  he  never  has  anything  else  to  do — but  it  must  be 


HEADLINE  OR   BLANK   COPY    BOOKS  — WHICH  ?       71 

asked  what  about  the  pages  and  lessons  he  has  missed  ?  Is  it 
not  obvious  that  this  Blank  Book  victim  is  quite  out  of  the 
running,  that  he  will  perforce  have  to  work  at  the  same  copy  as 
the  rest  of  the  class  when  he  is  admittedly  unfit  for  and  unable  to 
do  it?  What  about  the  individual  attention  rendered  necessary 
if  this  returned  absentee  is  to  get  any  justice  at  all  in  his  writing 
class  ? 

His  schoolfellow  B,  on  the  other  hand  enters  the  "  Headline  " 
class  at  the  same  time  and  under  the  same  conditions.  But  what 
a  contrast !  Here  also  the  pupils  have  written  the  same  number  of 
copies  and  received  the  same  number  of  lessons,  but  that  does  not 
affect  our  friend.  His  book  is  opened  and  he  commences  just 
where  he  left  off.  Every  individual  member  of  his  class  is  an 
independent  member,  each  pupil  working  at  that  exact  stage  most 
and  best  adapted  to  his  personal  ability,  and  therefore  he  resumes 
his  labours  under  the  very  minimum  of  disadvantage,  conscious 
that  he  can  proceed  with  his  copy  as  satisfactorily  as  before  his 
absence,  and  with  no  despondent  reference  to  his  class-mates.  He 
feels  he  is  not  out  of  the  running,  and  the  teacher  knows  it,  for 
there  are  no  lapsed  copies  and  lessons  which  he  can  never  overtake. 

Blank  books  are  certainly  inferior  to  Headline  Copy  Books  in 
this  comparison. 

Lastly  as  to  No.  4  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  understand  its 
drift.  "Blank  Bcoks  allow  of  class  teaching"!  Of 
course  they'  do,  but  are  we  to  understand  by  implication  that 
Headline  Books  do  not  allow  of  Class  Teaching  ?  It  has  been 
shown  that  they  not  only  permit,  but  that  they  require  and  demand 
it  equally  with  Blank  or  any  other  kind  of  Writing  Copy  Books. 
If  the  objector  does  not  see  "how  the  Black  Board  can  be  used" 
with  advantage  to  illustrate  ard  demonstrate  principles  to  writers 
in  Headline  Copy  Books  just  as  well  as  to  writers  in  Blank  Books 
—  or  for  the  matter  of  that  to  writers  on  slates  also — anything  that 
has  been  said  or  could  be  said  in  that  direction  would  be  powerless 
to  convince  him. 

It  is  a  palpable  delusion  to  imagine  that  Black  Board  demon- 
stration is  only  useful  when  every  member  of  the  class  is  engaged 


72  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

in  writing  exactly  the  same  copy,  word,  or  letter.  One  may  take 
twenty  different  headlines,  say  of  small  hand,  and  there  will  hardly 
be  a  single  copy  amongst  them  that  is  not  composed  of  elements 
common  to  all. 

Finally  the  practical  use  to  be  made  of  the  Black  Board  as  a 
medium  for  instruction  in  writing  when  Headline  Books  are  used, 
is  identically  and  precisely  the  same  that  a  Blank  Book  advocate 
Vvould  make  of  it  AFTER  he  had  written  the  copy,  viz.  to  illustrate 
or  explain  any  point  of  difficulty  principle  or  mistake,  that  might 
arise  in  the  day's  teaching. 

Indeed  such  is  the  preponderating  weight  of  evidence  in  sup- 
port of  Headline  Copy  Books,  and  so  slender  flimsy  and  untenable 
all  the  arguments  for  Blank  Copy  Books,  as  to  render  the  use  of 
the  latter  a  matter  of  personal  pressure,  accidental  impulse, 
inclination  to  novelty,  or  of  vested  interests. 

Isolated  cases  may  occur  and  particular  individuals  may 
possibly  secure  good  Blank  Book  results  by  means  of  that  devotion 
and  abnormal  expenditure  of  labour  and  zeal  which  hobby- riders 
so  generously  and  so  generally  indulge  in,  but  it  is  vain  to  expect 
that  the  tens  of  thousands  of  our  teachers  will  accept  a  system 
which  literally  bristles  with  anomalies,  difficulties  and  defects. 

It  may  be  that,  in  the  words  of  a  zealous  defender  of  Blank 
Books,  "  The  day  of  Headline  Books  is  past"  !  "  Headline  Copy 
"Books  are  obsolete  "  !!  "  Headline  Copy  Books  are  virtually  a 
"thing  of  the  Past"!!!  It  may  be  so,  but  appearances  are 
against  it,  facts  disprove  it,  and  logic  derides  it,  and  it  must  be 
asserted  with  the  calmest  deliberation  that  on  all  counts,  in  all 
aspects  and  respects  the  verdict  is  unanimously  and  unreservedly 
against  and  opposed  to  the  introduction  of  any  System  of  Blank 
Copy  Books  for  the  teaching  of  writing  in  our  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools. 

NOTE  :  Lest  the  assertion  on  page  60  reflecting  on  the 
quality  of  the  writing  of  our  teachers  be  considered  exagger- 
ated or  unfounded  I  here  reproduce  some  extracts  just  taken 
from  the  Blue  Books  of  current  and  recent  years,  in  refer- 
ence to  handwriting  in  England. 


HEADLINE   OR   BLANK   COPY    BOOKS— WHICH  !        73 

"The  writing  of  the  pupil  teachers  is  generally  poor"  (Her 
Majesty's  Inspector).  "  This  latter  remark  I  would  specially 
emphasize  in  the  case  of  my  own  disifict,  to  which  I  attribute  a 
good  deal  of  the  poor  handwriting  that  exists  in  its  schools" 
(Chief  Inspector,  p.  308). 

"The  assistants  are  too  frequently  unable  to  set  a  proper 
copy  on  the  blackboard  "  (p.  16). 

"  Teachers  cannot  always  write  well  themselves"  (p.  18), 
and  as  to  the  caligraphy  of  our  Students  in  Training  for  teachers 
we  read  : — 

"Handwriting  is  becoming  worse  every  year"  (Report  on 
Training  Colleges,  p.  450). 

These  statements  surely  justify  every  word  in  the  paragraph 
referred  to,  coming  as  they  do  from  those  who  are  best  able  to 
form  a  judgment  on  the  question. 


74  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    VI 

DESKS    SLATES    BOOKS    Pl'NS    INK    ETC. 

WHAT  Desk  do  you  use  ?  How  does  it  answer?  Is  it  adjustable, 
rigid,  durable,  reliable,  convenient  and  efficient?  Again  and 
again  are  the  changes  rung  on  these  questions  yet  how  seldom 
are  the  answers  satisfactory.  The  desk  is  the  most  essential, 
expensive  and  important  article  of  furniture  connected  with  the 
art  of  writing.  Upon  the  correct  and  hygienic  construction  of  the 
desk  depend  almost  vital  issues,  not  solely  with  regard  to  the 
caligraphy,  but  more  specifically  to  the  health  and  well-being  of 
the  writers.  Human  skill  and  ingenuity  have  been  lavished  upon 
these  articles  to  render  them  as  perfect  as  the  most  stringent 
demands  could  require.  On  the  continent,  where  the  interest 
excited  has  been  of  the  deepest  character,  Doctors  of  Philosophy 
and  of  Medicine  have  vied  with  each  other  in  efforts  to  evolve 
the  most  perfect  and  effective  desk  possible  for  school  use.  The 
almost  unanimous  verdict  is  in  favour  of  a  low  desk  that  shall 
permit  the  arms  of  the  writer  to  rest  naturally  thereon,  when  he  is 
sitting  erect,  without  either  raising  or  depressing  the  shoulders, 
and  although  this  end  is  seldom  actually  and  individually 
attained  in  large  schools  it  can  be  approximated  to  very  nearly. 
These  low  desks  about  which  there  has  been,  and  still  continues, 
such  a  fever  of  excitement  have  not  had  a  sufficiently  long  test  to 
prove  them  to  be  altogether  advantageous  and  superior  to  those 
that  are  higher.  It  is  still  a  moot  question  whether  the  support 
which  the  writer  receives  from  the  back  rest  is  superior  to  the  rest 
afforded  by  the  arms  when  they  are  placed  upon  the  desk  to 
counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  body  as  it  is  inclined  forward  in 
the  act  of  writing.  The  great  weight  of  evidence  nevertheless  is  in 


DESKS   SLATES    1JOOKS    PENS    INK    ETC.  /5 

favour  of  the  Back  rest  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  tests  and 
time  will  confirm  the  judgment,  and  that  the  low  desks  will  entirely 
supersede  those  at  present  in  use. 

When  we  come  to  speak  of  the  slope  of  the  desk  fewer 
difficulties  meet  us,  and  the  case  is  capable  of  very  easy  settle- 
ment, although  the  best  precise  angle  has  not  been  definitely 
fixed. 

Two  or  three  degrees  in  either  direction  can  hardly  make 
much  difference  and  as  writers  on  the  subject  vary  between  10° 
and  15°  of  slope,  teachers  cannot  go  far  wrong  within  these 
extremes. 

If  the  erect  posture  of  the  writer  is  to  be  maintained  12  or  13 
degrees  would  seem  to  be  the  Hygienically  superior  slope  to 
observe. 

The  3  or  4  inches  of  flat  surface  beyond  the  slanting  portion 
should  be  provided  with  a  pen  groove,  and  with  holes  at  convenient 
distances  for  the  inkwells,  which  should  be  protected  from  dust  by 
sliding  metal  covers  sunk  flush  with  the  desk.  For  junior  pupils 
the  desks  should  not  be  more  than  ten  inches  broad,  for  seniors 
they  may  be  eleven  or  twelve  independent  of  the  flat  ridge. 

A  narrow  seat  is  an  instrument  of  torture  and  should  not  be 
permitted,  some  we  have  seen  being  not  more  than  six  inches 
broad.  The  width  should  not  be  less  than  ten  inches  and  may  be 
increased  to  twelve  with  advantage  and  benefit.  If  the  form  be 
hollowed  out  along  somewhat  near  the  back  it  will  tend  to  prevent 
slipping,  and  will  yield  a  more  comfortable  seat.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  hollowing  out  is  not  made  too  deep,  or  the  writer 
will  be  thrown  backwards  too  far  off  the  perpendicular.  Of  course 
the  introduction  of  the  low  desks  will  render  lockers  and  partitions 
for  books  running  underneath  a  matter  of  impossibility.  A  ledge 
should  therefore  run  under  the  seat,  which,  whilst  not  nearly  so 
convenient,  will  still  provide  some  accommodation  for  the  pupils' 
books. 

Whether  single,  dual  or  longer  desks  are  employed  is  matter 
for  individual  preference  or  financial  consideration,  but  all  desks 
should  possess  the  following  essential  features: — a  smooth  and 


76  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

sufficiently  broad  writing  surface,  adjustable  action  (both  simple 
safe  and  strong),  a  workable  angle  of  slope,  rigidity,  foot  rails, 
good  broad  seats  hollowed  out  and  furnished  with  back  rests,  an 
ample  supply  of  inkwells — covered  when  not  in  use — and  shelves 
for  books. 

With  a  desk  and  seat  fulfilling  all  these  requirements  the 
writing  of  the  children  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  answer 
and  respond  to  the  most  rigid  demands  of  the  severest  criticism 
or  Inspectorial  examination. 

Slates  !  Shall  slates  be  used  at  all  in  our  Schools  ?  Are  they 
desirable  aids  to  Education,  are  they  helps,  material  helps  in  the 
formation  of  a  good  handwriting  ?  Hygiene  and  Optics  reply  to 
the  first  query  and  say  "  Certainly  not "  !  Slates  are  dirty  and  dan- 
gerous as  well  as  injurious.  Discipline  chimes  in  and  denounces 
them  as  noisy  and  troublesome.  But,  paper  is  expensive  ! 
Granted,  it  will  cost  a  little  more  money  than  our  old  friends  the 
slates  :  the  gain  however  in  Discipline  or  order  Cleanliness,  Health, 
Neatness,  and  Improvement  in  writing  will  prove  to  be  more  than 
a  compensating  benefit  and  blessing.  The  exclusive  use  of  paper 
is  strongly  recommended,  as  being  not  only  highly  superior  from 
an  Educational  Standpoint,  but  all  things  considered  ultimately 
more  economical.  Where  slates  are  used  they  should  be  of  a  good 
size,  framed,  strengthened  at  the  corners,  and  ruled  on  one  side. 
They  must  never  be  allowed  to  get  dirty  and  greasy  as  the  writing 
on  them  is  then  not  only  difficult  but  almost  illegible,  by  reason 
of  its  faintness,  and  it  may  be  predicated  that  much  of  the  injury 
to  sight  is  caused  or  intensified  by  slate  writing. 

Indeed  with  the  best  of  slates  the  ratio  of  visibility  as  com- 
pared with  ink  writing  or  pencil  writing  on  paper  is  as  3  to  4. 
How  much  tess  this  will  be  with  dirty  and  greasy  slates  can  easily 
be  imagined.  White  slates  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  black 
ones.  It  is  simply  cruelty  to  insist  upon  children  writing  on  these 
black  and  greasy  slates  in  a  room  imperfectly  lighted  and  (as  in 
numerous  instances)  with  the  light  at  their  backs.  Then  in  how 
many  cases  are  the  pencils  simply  stumpy  ends,  hardly  long  enough 
to  be  held  in  the  tiny  fingers.  This  evil  must  be  remedied  and 


DESKS   SLATES   BOOKS    PENS   INK   ETC.  77 

holders  provided  or  new  pencils  supplied.  Lastly,  soft  slate  pencils 
are  the  best,  if  hard  and  gritty  they  scratch  and  destroy  the 
surface  of  the  slate,  thus  making  an  inherently  bad  article  still 
worse. 

When  our  Educational  Authorities  wake  up  to  a  sense  of  their 
responsibilities,  all  such  important  details  of  School  Life  and 
Experience,  as  these  now  under  discussion,  will  be  thoroughly 
investigated  decided  upon  and  Reformed.* 

Of  course  the  objections  to  slates  have  not  all  been  mentioned. 
The  mode,  the  general  if  not  virtually  the  universal  mode  of 
cleaning !  the  slates  constitutes  in  our  opinion  a  valid  reason 
for  their  abandonment.  Who  that  has  witnessed  the  proceedings 
in  an  arithmetic  class  where  slates  are  being  used  can  entertain 
any  doubts  on  the  question  ?  Get  rid  of  slates  and  you  get  rid  of 
the  dirtiest  and  most  demoralizing  habits  that  are  born  and  bred 
in  the  Schoolroom.  It  is  not  decent  to  retain  them,  it  is  not  safe, 
it  is  not  wise. 

Let  them  go,  few  will  be  found  to  mourn  their  loss. 

Books.— In  the  matter  of  Books  their  character  as  to  Head- 
lines has  already  been  examined.  There  are  other  considerations 
to  which  attention  may  be  directed.  And  first  as  to  paper.  It  is 
a  false  economy  to  have  inferior  paper.  Such  a  thing  as  Educat- 
ing Downwards  does  unhappily  exist  and  to  true  teachers  this  is  a 
calamity,  a  deplorable  calamity,  ever  to  be  shunned. 

Competition  fortunately  cuts  out  from  the  market  defective 
paper,  and  it  is  cause  for  congratulation  that  the  School  Boards 
generally  set  such  a  worthy  example  in  the  question  by  insist- 
ing on  a  certain  (and  certainly  good)  quality  of  paper  in  all 
contracts  for  Writing  Copy  Books.  Poor  thin  paper  is  no  longer 
a  recognised  entity,  and  as  a  rule  Copy  Books  are  now  unex- 
ceptionable in  this  respect,  those  that  are  not  will  soon  possess 
only  a  past  history. 

The  Shape  of  the  Copy  Book  is  an  interesting  topic  to 
examine.  Shapes  vary  (Fig.  24),  and  so  do  sizes  very  considerably. 
The  Sizes  of  Books  differ  so  very  much  that  we  give  the  extreme 
dimensions  between  which  there  is  every  possible  variety.  One 

*  Jolly's  "  Education  in  its  Physical  Relations"  gives  very  clear  and  sensible  direc- 
tions on  these  points. 


7#  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

of  the  largest  will  measure  TO  inches  by  8  whilst  the  smallest  is  7 
by  4,  or  80  square  inches  and  28  sq.  in.  Some  are  Square  as 
No.  i,  and  some  oblong,  the  latter  having  two  kinds,  those  which 
are  longer  horizontally  (as  No  2),  and  those  which  are  longer 
in  the  Vertical  direction  as  No.  3. 


No.  i 


J 

FIG.  24. 


No.  3 


In  Germany  and  Austria,  where  these  and  similar  points  are 
professionally  and  exhaustively  discussed,  a  very  strong  movement 
has  set  in  opposing  shapes  Nos.  i  and  2  and  approving  of  style  3. 
Many  critical  and  clever  essays  have  been  written  on  the  question 
and  after  careful  study  of  the  arguments  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
resist  the  conclusion  that  the  advocates  of  short  lines  or  narrow 
Copy  Books  have  the  best  of  it.  Correspondence  forms  one  of 
the  most  common  and  largest  classes  of  penmanship  (Commercial 
and  Professional).  It  is  found  that  small,  medium  and  larg^ 
si/ed  note  papers  are  the  most  convenient  and  practically  useful 
sixes  and  shapes  for  letter  writing.  On  this  ground  it  is  surely 
expedient  to  assimilate  as  far  as  possible  to  common  usage  in  our 
School  practice.  Indeed  most  office  books  such  as  Day  Books, 
Journals,  Ledgers,  Cash  Books,  &c.  take  the  same  form  and  arc 
narrow  from  left  to  right,  and  long  from  base  to  top.  It  is  evident 
therefore  that  by  using  Copy  Books  of  an  entirely  different  shape 
with  juveniles  an  unfair  strain  is  put  upon  the  pupils  at  a  time 
when  they  are  least  able  to  bear  it,  and  that  we  are  exacting  from 
them  a  task  which  is  both  unnecessary  and  inexpedient.  But 
again,  it  is  found  by  medical  men,  Oculists,  that  as  the  writing 
recedes  to  the  right  it  becomes  injurious  to  the  eyes,  and  that  the 
only  remedy  for  this  danger  is  to  use  narrow  books,  and  preserve 
what  will  subsequently  be  described  as  the  middle  straight 
position. 

It  has  been  advanced  as  an  argument  for  the  Long-line  Copy 
Books,  that  there  is  a  not  inconsiderable  advantage  in  the 


DESKS  SLATES  HOOKS  PENS  INK  ETC.       79 

superiority  of  the  Headlines :  greater  facility  being  afforded  for 
Educative  copies  than  is  possible  with  narrow  books.  But  in 
reply  can  we  not  make  the  short  copies  quite  as  suggestive  as  the 
longer  ones  are  explicit,  so  as  to  reduce  the  difference  to  an 
insignificant  compass  ;  and  secondly,  does  not  the  disadvantage 
peculiar  to  the  long  copies  of  being  detrimental  to  eyesight  more 
than  counterbalance  any  slight  benefit  such  as  the  one  just 
described? 

It  is  strongly  recommended  that  no  Copy  Book  Headline 
exceed  seven  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  and  that  this  size  be 
used  alternately  with  another,  of  say  five  or  five  and  a  half  inches. 
Such  a  width  would  bring  the  work  of  the  pupil  well  within  the 
circle  of  vision  that  oculists  inform  us  is  a  healthy  limit,  their 
decision  of  cour>e,  on  matters  pertaining  purely  to  eyesight,  being 
of  the  utmost  value  and  authority.-  The  narrow  books  (or  short 
line  books)  are  being  rapidly  adopted  on  the  Continent,  and  it 
may  be  surmised  that  it  is  only  a  quesiicn  of  time  and  that  not 
far  distant  when  the  very  large  books  will  have  entirely  disappeared. 
Whether  our  English  Teachers  will  easily  become  converts  to  the 
New  Shape  remains  to  be  seen.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  any  real 
advance,  however  small  it  may  be,  will  immediately  be  appropriated 
by  the  English  profession,  although  we  are  proverbially  slow  to 
appreciate  and  still  slower  to  adopt  substantial  reforms  in  whatever 
direction  they  may  be  made. 

Ink.  Although  usually  regarded  as  a  minor  point  of  little  or 
no  importance  the  kind  of  ink  that  is  used  in  School  writing  will 
be  found  to  materially  affect  the  welfare  of  the  classes.  Even  when 
good  desks  and  seats,  good  light,  paper,  and  pens  are  all  given 
to  write  with,  a  thin  pale  ink  proves  very  distressing  especially 
with  young  people.  What  it  must  be,  how  much  more  aggrava- 
ting, where  the  desks  are  not  commodious,  the  light  is  inferior, 
the  paper  thin  and  the  pens  bad  we  cannot  say  and  would 
rather  not  imagine.  The  consequences  under  such  conditions 
must  be  serious.  Who  does  not  recall  with  feelings  akin  to 
disgust  his  futile  struggles  to  produce  decent  specimens  of  rali- 
graphy  at  school  when  using  ink  that  was  best  described  as  sooty 


8O  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

and  greasy  water  ?  The  ink  used  in  schools  should  not  be 
chemical,  i.e.  writing  faint  and  turning  dark  afterwards,  but  it 
should  be  of  an  intense  blackness,  so  that  the  writing  is  plainly 
visible,  as  it  is  being  traced  on  the  paper,  without  straining  the 
sight.  Excellent  school  inks  at  very  moderate  cost  and  to  which 
no  exception  can  be  taken  are  now  manufactured  by  many  makers 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Pens. — Only  a  word  is  necessary  with  reference  to  pens  and 
penholders.  The  market  is  glutted  with  an  abundance  of  nibs 
many  of  them  utterly  unfit  for  use,  being  made  of  poor  metal  and 
furthermore  badly  finished.  Good  durable  pens  will  always  prove 
the  cheapest  and  best  ;  so-called  cheap  pens  are  invariably  the 
dearest  and  most  unsatisfactory,  as  the  constant  changing  of  nibs 
that  is  required  creates  much  disorder  and  loses  much  valuable 
time.  Nothing  disheartens  a  <:hiid  more  than  to  write  with  a 
"scratchy"  or  "  Bad  Pen."  Lei  teachers  see  to  it  that  no  scholar 
has  such  an  excuse  for  the  "  Bad  Writing"  that  always  follows  in 
its  train.  Fancy  and  fanciful  penholders  are  undesirable  and  use- 
less. The  plainer  and  simpler  the  holder  is  the  better.  We 
have  yet  to  see  steel-tipped  holders,  a  contrivance  which  by  pre- 
venting nibbling  and  gnawing  of  the  tops  so  widely  practised  in 
our  schools  would  be  as  beneficial  to  the  pupils  as  economical  for 
the  management.  As  to  length  the  penholders  should  not  exceed 
six  inches  nor  fall  below  five  and  a  half  and  they  should  not  be 
thinner  than  an  ordinary  lead  pencil,  the  thickness  varying  with 
the  size  of  the  hand  01  writer.  To  employ  a  thin  holder  is  con- 
sidered a  dangerous  practice,  as  much  writing  therewith  will  induce 
spasmodic  tightening  of  the  grasp  and  thus  favour  the  habitual 
contraction  of  the  muscles  which  causes  writer's  cramp. 

Blotting  Paper.  Blotting  paper  is  essential  to  and  a  de- 
sideratum in  every  writing  class  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why 
many  teachers  forbid  its  use  and  discountenance  its  very  presence. 
For  cleanliness  utility  and  saving  of  time  blotting  paper  is  invalu- 
able. When  a  page  is  finished  much  time  will  perforce  be  wasted 
if  blotting  paper  is  not  forthcoming,  and  during  the  waiting  (or 
wasting)  time  thus  entailed  temptation  tc  talking  and  disorder  is 


DESKS    SLATES   BOOKS    PENS   INK    ETC.  8 1 

terribly  strong.  It  is  also  equally  imperative  that  the  copy  books 
be  kept  as  clean  as  possible.  How  is  this  to  be  done  if  there  is 
no  blotting  paper  on  the  page  for  the  hand  to  rest  upon  ?  Chil- 
dren do  not  enter  their  classes  with  clean  hands  as  a  rule  (unfortu- 
nately the  reverse  is  generally  the  case)  and  the  unavoidable 
consequence  is  that  the  copy  books  bear  very  objectionable 
evidence  of  these  dirty  fingers  from  the  first  page  to  the  very  last. 
Besides  this  the  surface  of  the  paper  is  almost  destroyed  for 
writing  purposes  by  the  grease  and  heat  from  the  hand  if  no 
blotting  paper  is  allowed.  Lastly  on  this  point,  in  all  good  offices 
the  usage  is  to  have  blotting  paper  und£r  the  hand  (and  at 
hand)  in  every  kind  of  writing,  and  if  it  is  thus  found  to  be 
requisite  for  adults  how  much  more  necessary  is  it  with  juveniles. 

A  word  as  to  the  mode  or  modes  generally  adopted  for  clean- 
ing the  pens.  In  numerous  schools  the  pens  are  never  cleaned 
at  all,  in  others  they  are  cleaned  by  processed  as  manifold  as  they 
are  objectionable,  and  in  some  few  establishments  penwipers  are 
used  and  the  pens  are  cleaned  as  they  ought  to  be,  daily  and 
effectively. 

Of  course  teachers  should  aim  at  inculcating  habits  of  neatness 
and  cleanliness,  and  in  the  Writing  Class  these  habits  may  receive 
material  strengthening  and  stimulating  by  the  mode  of  pen-clean- 
ing that  shall  prevail.  It  will  not  always  be  possible  in  elementary 
schools,  but  if  penwipers  could  be  introduced  generally,  much 
that  is  slovenly  and  dirty  would  disappear  from  our  classes 


82  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER    VII 

POSITIONS    OF    WRITKk     HOOK    AND    PEN 

THE  Hygienic  demands  upon  the  teacher  with  respect  to  the 
teaching  of  Handwriting  have  already  been  fully  established.  The 
obligation  cannot  be  evaded,  for  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  II.  the 
posture  in  writing  is  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance,  and  we 
must  add  of  vital  consequence.  Moreover  it  must  be  understood 
here  at  the  very  outset  that  we  tolerate  no  compromise  with  half 
measures  or  superficial  treatment.  The  question  is  too  grave  to 
be  tampered  with,  and  no  honest  mind  after  reading  the  reports 
of  medical  men,  who  have  given  this  special  subject  their  most 
earnest  attention,  can  remain  indifferent  to  its  claims. 

Ever  since  the  incursion  of  Slope  have  its  followers  been 
trying  but  in  vain — to  find  and  fix  the  best  posture  of  the  body 
in  the  act  of  writing.  Every  conceivable  attitude,  from  the 
extreme  right  side  to  an  equally  extreme  left  side  position,  has 
been  in  turn  tried,  advised,  and  ultimately  abandoned,  the  be- 
wildered experimentalists  in  despair  giving  it  up  and  crying  out 
with  a  last  gasp  "Sit  as  you  like,  everybody  to  his  own  fancy.  It 
"  doesn't  matter  how  you  sit.';  Teachers  have  indeed  been  heard  to 
say,  (did  I  say  teachers  ?  I  will  add  eminent  Educationists  have 
declared,  even  in  print)  that  "  rules  for  posture  in  writing  are  absurd. 
"  Every  writer  should  find  his  own  easiest  position,  hold  the  pen  as 
"  he  feels  best  he  can,  and  move  or  tilt  his  book  to  suit  his  own 
"  convenience."  This  is  after  all  not  a  bit  surprising,  for  there  are 
no  lengths  to  which  "  Slopers  "  will  not  go  to  justify  the  obliquity 
of  their  penmanship  :  and  so  when  "  Sit  up  straight  to  the  right," 
•"Sit  up  straight  to  the  left,"  and  all  the  intermediate  degrees  of 
twist  and  erectness  have  been  exhausted  to  no  avail  the  only 


POSITIONS   OF    WRITER    BOOK    AND    PEN  83 

safety  is  in  pooh-poohing  the  necessity  of  any  rule  at  all.  Hence 
we  have  had  the  convenient  "carte  blanche"  system  insisted 
upon  for  years  by  numerous  exponents  of  the  cahgraphic  art, 
scattering  dismay  through  the  ranks  of  all  law-abiding  teachers, 
and  destruction  through  the  masses  of  victimised  pupils,  whose 
misfortune  it  has  been  to  come  under  their  jurisdiction.  This 
trilling  with  serious  matters  is  not  to  be  tolerated,  it  is  unique  in 
the  whole  range  of  Instruction  and  Education.  In  no  other 
domain  of  Literature  Science  or  Art  is  such  a  state  of  things 
permitted  or  even  mooted. 

Robust  bodies  and  reckless  minds  may  ignore  and  even  deny 
the  evil  effects  of  bad  postures,  but  in  these  days  it  can  only  be 
at  the  sacrifice  of  either  veracity  or  prestige. 

The  straight  upright  position  of  the  body  then  must  be  insisted 
upon,  the  arms  of  the  writer  being  freely  and  equally  placed  on 
the  desk  at  what  distance  from  the  sides  the  elbows  are  to  be, 
will  be  regulated  by  the  relative  heights  of  the  desk  and  seat— the 
left  hand  steadying  the  book  or  paper  in  use.  Every  advantage 
must  be  taken  of  the  back-rest  (where  it  exists)  as  it  is  calculated 
not  only  to  yield  support  and  diminish  or  prevent  weariness,  but 
also  to  impart  confidence  to  the  writer  and  strength  to  the  writing. 
Make  the  posture  as  natural  and  easy  as  possible,  and  the  healthier 
it  is,  the  better  for  both  writer  and  writing.  The  head  should  not 
remain  stiffly  erect  in  a  constrained  manner,  but  should  incline 
forward  sufficiently  to  command" the  most  perfect  view  of  the 
writing,  the  feet  being  supported  on  a  footrail  or  drawn  up  some- 
what under  the  body. 

Crossing  the  legs  or  sprawling  them  about  is  both  undesirable, 
and  injurious  to  the  cause  of  good  writing. 

In  the  act  of  writing  the  body  should  be  well  braced  up  and 
held  together  ;  la/iness  and  looseness  of  posture  beget  looseness 
and  slovenliness  in  the  caligraphy.  A  distance  of  from  twelve  to 
twenty  inches  or  even  more  will  thus  be  maintained  between  the 
eyes  and  the  book,  varying  of  course  in  accordance  with  the 
heights  of  the  writer  and  of  the  desk. 

If  the  opinions  concerning  bodily  posture  in  writing  have  been 

O  2 


84  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

countless  and  conflicting,  equally  so  do  we  find  them  in  the  matter 
of  position  of  the  Copy  Book.  Nothing  definite  or  determined 
has  been  arrived  at  amongst  the  advocates  of  Sloping  Writing,  but 
in  striking  contrast  to  all  this  uncertainty  we  have  with  Vertical  or 
Hygienic  writing  but  one  possible  position,  and  that  is  the  straight 
middle  position. 

To  Dr.  Paul  Schubert,  the  eminent  oculist  of  Niirnberg, 
belongs  the  honour  of  triumphantly  demonstrating  by  numerous 
measurements  and  observations  the  only  practicable  and  truly 
Hygienic  position  of  the  Copy  book.  The  results  of  his  able  and 
exhaustive  experiments  are  given  in  the  Journal  of  School  Hygiene 
1889,  from  which  we  quote  largely  in  the  following  arguments. 

The  question  as  to  what  position  of  the  Copy  Book  is  hygieni 
cally  the  best  and  least  dangerous  to  the  spinal  column  and  eye 
of  the  writing  child  has  for  many  years  been  occupying  the  minds 
of  teachers. 

We  have  at  the  outset  to  distinguish  between  a  middle  posi- 
tion and  a  right  position  of  the  Copy  Book  according  as  the 
latter,  in  the  writing,  lies  exactly  in  front  of  the  middle  of  the 
body,  or  to  the  right  of  it. 

Left  positions  do  not  concern  us  in  right-handed  penmanship. 

Further  we  must  make  a  distinction  between  straight  and 
slanting  positions  of  the  Copy  Book,  according  as  its  edges  have 
or  have  not  the  same  direction  as  the  edge  of  the  desk. 

In  our  right-sloping  caligraphy  oblique  position  consists 
exclusively  in  making  the  upper  edge  of  the  Copy  Book  revolve 
towards  the  left. 

There  are  accordingly  four  positions  to  be  considered  Straight 
and  Oblique  Middle  positions,  and  Straight  and  Oblique  Right 
positions.  Each  of  these  stands  in  closest  relation  to  direction  of 
writing. 

In  the  Straight  Middle  Position  only  Vertical  Writing  can 
be  produced,  in  the  other  three  positions  only  the  ordinary 
Sloping  Writing. 

If  from  the  point  of  the  writing  pen  a  line  is  drawn  towards 
the  middle  of  the  breast  and  termed  the  line  of  direction  of 


POSITIONS    OF    VVKITKK    HOOK    AND    TEN  85 

the  last  written  downstroke,  then  for  all  four  positions  of  the 
Copy  Book  the  proposition  holds  good  that  downstroke  and 
line  of  direction  approximately  coincide.  This  relation  can  be 
confirmed  by  measurement  in  every  School,  where  the  children 
write  without  being  subject  to  influence  or  constraint.  Ex- 
periments made  by  Dr.  Schubert  with  316  Scholars  embracing 
some  1586  measurements  fully  supported  this  hypothesis.  It 
would  lead  too  far  to  pursue  in  detail  the  process  of  movement  in 
writing,  in  order  to  explain  the  agreement  of  the  downstrokes  with 
their  lines  of  direction  in  every  position  of  the  Copy  Book. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  relation  put  forward  is  abundantly 
approved.  Since  therefore  in  Middle  position  the  downstrokes 
stand  perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the  desk,  they  will  stand 
perpendicular  also  to  the  edge  of  the  Copy  Book  and  to  the 
writing  line  if  the  Copy  Book  is  placed  straight. 

If  however  the  latter  be  turned  with  its  upper  edge  towards 
the  left,  the  writing  lines  rise  from  left  (below)  to  right  (above)  but 
the  downstrokes  remain  as  before  perpendicular  to  the  edge  of 
the  desk,  hence  they  come  to  stand  in  a  right  oblique  position  as 
regards  the  writing  line,  and  their  obliquity  depends  on  the  degree 
of  the  turning  of  the  Copy:  we  repeat  consequently  that  Vertical 
Writing  only  can  be  writtQp  in  Straight  Middle  Position,  and 
Sloping  Writing  only  in  the  oblique.  In  all  right  positions  the 
downstrokes  like  their  lines  of  direction  stand  right  oblique  to  the 
edge  of  the  desk.  If  now  the  edge  of  the  Copy  Book  is  parallel 
to  the  latter  the  letters  stand  just  as  oblique  to  the  writing  line 
also.  Should  the  Copy  Book  be  turned  towards  the  left  the  incli- 
nation of  the  down  strokes  towards  the  writing  line  increases.  But 
never  in  right  position  can  vertical  writing  be  produced ;  for  to 
attain  this  object,  the  Copy  Book  would  have  to  be  turned  in  the 
direction  in  which  the  hands  of  a  watch  move,  so  that  the  lines 
would  run  from  left  above  to  right  below.  To  write  in  this  way  is 
impossible. 

Consequently  in  straight  and  oblique  right  positions,  only 
sloping  writing  can  be  produced. 

From  this  standpoint  we  then  advance  to  the  principal  ques- 


86  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

tion  viz.  in  which  position  of  the  Copy  Book  does  the  child  adopt 
the  best  bodily  posture,  endangering  or  unduly  burdening  no 
organ?  The  most  gratifying  unanimity  prevails  with  the  whole 
body  of  investigators  on  the  fact,  that  all  right  positions  of  the 
Copy  Book  are  thoroughly  injurious  and  utterly  to  be  rejected. 

For :  They  compel  the  head  to  turn  to  the  right,  the 
shoulders  follow  more  or  less,  the  right  arm  slips  on  the  desk  to  the 
right  and  to  a  certain  degree  downwards,  the  left  arm  is  pushed 
up  causing  the  shoulder  to  rise,  the  right  sinks,  the  spinal  column 
loses  its  upright  posture  and  assumes  a  bending  towards  the  left, 
the  body — to  which  this  wearisome  distortion  becomes  in  the  long 
run  uncomfortable — collapses  more  and  more,  the  lateral  bending 
is  accompanied  by  a  similar  one  forward,  and  the  head,  approaching 
the  writing  in  a  way  extremely  threatening  for  the  eye,  even  sinks 
down  upon  the  left  arm  which  is  pushed  before  the  middle  of  the 
body. 

Beginnings  of  this  bodily  distortion  are  found  in  every  child 
who  adopts  the  right  position  of  Copy  Book,  and  in  the  majority 
of  cases  the  result  is  really  wonderfully  Cramped  postures,  on  which 
the  stamp  of  danger  to  health  is  unmistakeably  imprinted. 

There  are  two  organs  in  particular  which  are  distressed  by  this, 
the  Spinal  Column  and  the  eye,  as  we  have  seen  in  a  previous 
chapter,  for  according  to  Dr.  A.  Baginsky  amongst  1000  cases  of 
crooked  growth  887  or  887  per  cent,  took  their  rise  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  fourteen.  Dr.  Mayer  found  that  the  faulty  posture  of 
body,  most  frequently  observed  in  the  case  of  children  writing  with 
right  position  of  Copy  Book,  exactly  corresponded  to  the  permanent 
distortions  which  were  most  common  in  those  very  school  classes, 
viz.  the  C-shaped  bend  of  the  whole  spinal  column  towards  the 
left. 

Dr.  Schenk  ("  The  Aetiology  of  Scoliose  "  Berlin  1885),  with 
instruments  of  very  exact  action  examined  and  measured  200  chil- 
dren, with  the  result  that  160  were  found  to  sit  at  the  writing  so  that 
they  displaced  the  upper  body  opposite  the  pelvis  towards  the  left, 
manifestly  in  order  to  convert,  for  the  sake  of  easier  production  of 
sloping  writing,  the  original  middle  position  of  the  Copy  Book  into 


POSITIONS   OK    WRITER    HOOK   AND   PEN  87 

a  right  position.     All  these  160  were  found  to  be  more  or  less 
affected  with  pronounced  curvature  of  the  spine.1 

As  to  the  position  of  the  head,  a  bending  forward  is  common 
and  more  or  less  necessary  in  all  positions  of  the  Copy  Book,  but 
the  right  position  of  the  Copy  Book  requires  two  other  movements, 
a  turning  of  the  head  towards  the  right,  and  a  moving  forwards 
of  the  left  eye  which  causes  it  to  stand  deeper  or  lower  down 
than  the  right,  thus  constituting  the  first  step  in  the  deterioration  of 
the  whole  bodily  posture. 


FIG.  25. 

The  eye  is  endangered  by  the  right  position  because  every 
deviation  from  an  erect  posture  of  body,  every  twisting  of  the 
trunk,  and  every  cramping  contraction  of  whatever  kind  bring  the 
eyes  nearer  the  writing  and  force  them  to  stronger  convergence  of 
the  lines  of  vision  and  to  greater  exertion  of  their  power  of  accom- 
modation by  which  the  genesis  of  Shortsight  is  encouraged.  (See 
Fig.  25.)  These  observations  are  the  outcome  of  investigations 
by  different  authors  such  as  Schmcller,  Hahnel,  Berlin,  Florschiitz, 
Remboldt,  Schmidt- Rimpler,  Seggel,  Emmet,  &c.,  which  involved 
the  examination  of  no  less  than  21,949  cases. 

1  See  Appendix  III.  for  further  details 


88  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

There  is  accordingly  a  sufficiency  of  reasons  for  prohibiting  the 
right  position  of  the  Copy  Book,  and  there  appears  to  exist 
entire  unanimity  on  this  point  amongst  medical  experts. 

It  remains  only  to  determine  whether  the  Straight  Middle 
position  with  Vertical  Writing,  or  the  Oblique  Middle  position 
with  Oblique  Writing  is  the  better.  Here  also  observation  and 
measurement  are  the  decisive  agents  employed,  which  show  that 
in  oblique  middle  position  the  head  is  inclined  considerably  more 
than  in  straight  middle  position. 

In  400  experiments  in  writing  with  straight  middle  position, 
the  inclination  amounted  to  2'8°,  but  in  543  experiments  with  the 
Oblique  middle  position  to  7 '9°.  In  258  positions  of  the  copy 
where  no  directions  were  given  but  where  the  right  position  pre- 
dominated, to  9°  and  in  many  extreme  cases  to  16°. 

These  results  are  borne  out  by  general  practice,  and  it  is 
conclusively  proved  that  the  oblique  middle  position  of  the  Copy 
Book  not  only  induces  the  inclination  of  the  head,  but  draws  the 
body  after  it,  bending  and  twisting  the  spinal  column,  thus  pro- 
ducing according  to  Dr.  Schenk  that  form  of  spinal  curvature  which 
we  find  described  as  the  most  frequent  and  characteristic  school 
Scoliosis.  ^ 

It  is  moreover  an  error  to  suppose  that  everything  has  been 
done,  if  the  child  is  protected  hygienically  in  the  School  building 
itself.  The  influence  of  the  teacher  is  often  limited  to  School 
hours,  but  in  the  question  of  caligraphy  an  excellent  opportunity 
offers  itself  for  demanding  and  exerting  such  influence  in  the  pre- 
paration of  home  lessons,  when  the  supervision  of  a  teacher  no 
longer  exists.  For  if  Vertical  Writing  be  introduced  into  the 
School  we  may  be  sure  that  what  is  done  at  home  is  also,  without 
any  supervision  whatever  written  in  the  Straight  Middle  position, 
as  Vertical  Writing  can  be  produced  in  that  position  of  the  Copy 
Book  only,  and  therefore  there  is  no  lateral  Curvature  of  the 
spine. 

Unless  however  the  Straight  Middle  Position  with  its  insepa- 
rable accompaniment  Vertical  Writing  be  insisted  upon,  there  can 
and  will  be  no  security  against  the  continuance  of  the  prevailing 


POSITIONS   OF    WRITER    BOOK    AND    PEN  89 

evils,  since  Oblique  Writing  can  be  produced  just  as  easily  (if  not 
indeed  more  easily)  in  the  obnoxious  and  injurious  Right  positions 
of  the  co[-y  book  as  in  the  Middle. 

The  final  conclusion  is  then,  that  the  Copy  Book  should  lie 
before  the  writer,  not  outside  to  the  right  of  him.  Nevertheless 
we  are  not  inclined  to  go  quite  so  far  as  our  German  critics,  who 
say  that  the  middle  line  of  the  paper  should  if  produced  be 
coincident  with  the  line  down  the  middle  of  the  chest  or  sternum 
as  this  position  would  necessitate  the  right  hand  stretching  over, 
across  and  beyond  the  medial  line.  Such  a  requirement  would 
inevitably  bring  with  it  a  tilting  or  bending  over  of  the  entire 
upper  trunk,  which  would  cause  a  most  painful  twist  of  the  spinal 
column. 

The  diagram  (Fig.  26)  will  illustrate  all  the  positions  hitherto 
considered. 

When  in  the  middle  straight  position  the  book  must  be  so 


m>^     \ 
\> 

n     i  o 

D 

I 

\              i 

cb 

rt~i                MI               M~r 

cb 

No.  i. 

No.  2.                      No.  3.                      No.  4. 
FIG.  26. 

No.  5. 

adjusted,  laterally,  that  at  no  time  is  the  writing  carried  to  the  left 
over  the  medial  line  of  direction. 

Any  one  can  satisfy  himself  of  the  essential  character  of  this 
restricting  clause  by  testing  in  actual  writing  the  postures  as 
described. 

Writing  is  easiest  all  round  when  the  writing  surface  lies  well 
before  the  writer  in  the  straight  position  and  covering  the  space 
bounded  by  the  medial  line  on  the  one  side  and  (shall  we  call  it) 
tlv  right  shoulder  line  on  the  other,  as  indicated  in  No.  5  of  the 
diagram  above. 


9O  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

POSITION   OF   THE   PEN 

The  pen  should  be  held  firmly  but  not  tightly  between  the 
thumb  and  two  fore-fingers.  One  writer  informs  us  that  the  pen 
should  be  grasped  only  by  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  but  the  ex 
periment  has  only  to  be  tried  to  entail  a  speedy  abandonment.  If 
the  pen  be  properly  held  the  first  finger  can  at  any  time  be  lifted 
without  danger  of  the  pen  falling  from  the  hand.  Whilst  the 
thumb  is  bent  up  away  from  the  ends  of  the  fingers  the  latter  are 
to  be  kept  easily  straight,  perhaps  slightly  but  only  slightly  bent 
and  not  approaching  too  near  the  point  of  the  nil),  or  soiled  and 
inky  fingers  will  be  the  result.  The  end  of  the  second  finger  may 
rest  on  the  side  of  the  penholder  or  may  fall  somewhat  below  it  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher  or  writer.  The  penholder  furthermore 
should  ever  rema.n  on  or  above  the  piincipal  knuckle  of  the  fore- 
finger never  being  allowed  to  sink  into  the  hollow  near  the  second 
joint  of  the  thumb.  As  to  direction  let  the  pen  follow  the  hand 
and  arm  which  are  in  one  and  the  same  straight  line. 

A  common  and  not  less  pernicious  habit  is  to  allow  the  pen  to 
take  an  outward  direction  to  the  right,  when  as  an  inevitable  con- 
sequence the  writing  takes  a  backward  slope  and  all  the  curves 
and  lateral  lines  become  thickened  at  the  expense  of  the  down- 
strokes,  which  attenuate  off  into  hairlines  imparting  to  the  writing 
an  appearance  as  peculiar  as  it  is  illegible.  Broad  nibs  (as  the  J) 
conduce  greatly  to  this  abuse  which  appears  to  be  prevalent 
amongst  female  writers. 

Another  danger  is  in  holding  the  pen  in  a  nearly  upright  posi- 
tion. This  mistake  often  happens.  People  think  vertical 
writing  calls  for  a  vertically  held  pen  which  latter  brings  in  its 
train  spluttering  blots  and  not  good  temper.  Let  the  pen  slope 
at  an  angle  of  40°  or  45°  to  the  paper,  when  it  will  be  found  to 
write  with  a  maximum  of  ease  and  safety.  Do  not  turn  the  pen 
on  one  side,  but  use,  and  press  on,  both  points  of  the  nib  equally. 
Juveniles  are  particularly  prone  to  write  on  the  side  of  their  pens, 
it  being  universal  experience  that  the  worst  penmen  hold  their 
pens  in  the  worst  fashion.  Instructors  of  youth  in  Elementary 


POSITIONS   OF   WRITER    BOOK  AND  PEN  QI 

departments  where  pens  are  first  used  in  the  Writing  Class 
should  see  to  it  that  they  are  held  in  the  correct  way.  A  little 
labour  bestowed  on  this  point  at  the  beginning  of  a  child's 
writing  will  save  a  ton  of  trouble  in  after  years. 

Eccentricities  in  the  modes  of  holding  the  pen  must  not  be 
entertained  or  encouraged  for  a  moment,  such  as  placing  the  pen 
between  the  first  two  fingers  or  between  the  2nd  and  3rd.  These 
and  similar  vagaries  are  as  absurd  as  they  are  clumsy  and  un- 
scientific, and  remind  one  of  the  directions  given  in  a  manual 
treating  (in  part)  of  writing  and  how  it  should  be  taught.  Said 
this  author  "let  your  scholars  hold  their  pens  as  they  like  ;  it  is 
"quite  immaterial  how  they  hold  the  pen  SO  long  as  they 
"  learn  to  write  well !  " 

Briefly  then  we  may  consider  the  positions  to  be  as  follow, 
of:— 

1.  The  Writer  ;  square,  erect,  easy,  natural. 

2.  The  Book  ;  the  Straight  Middle  Position. 

3.  The  Pen  ;  obliquely  between  thumb  and  two  forefingers,  in 
a  line  with  arm. 

By  a  consistent  observance  of  these  rules  much  will  be  done 
towards  a  great  and  marked  improvement  in  the  writing  of  our 
School-children. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  appropriate  to  speak  about  the  direction 
of  the  light  under  which  children  should  write.  Obviously  pupils 
should  not  sit  with  their  backs  to  the  light,  neither  should  a 
brilliant  South  light  fall  directly  upon  them  from  the  front,  the 
effect  of  which  would  be  injury  to  the  eyes  from  the  insupportable 
glare  and  the  reflection  from  white  paper.  Side  lights  are  there- 
fore to  be  preferred,  and  of  the  two  the  left  side-light  is  superior 
and  should  be  secured  whenever  possible.  This  conclusion  har- 
monizes with  general  experience,  in  the  office,  the  study  and  the 
Schoolroom.1 

It  is  highly  gratifying  to  learn  that  on  the  Continent  many 

1  The  light  must  be  sufficiently  strong  and  fall  on  the  table  from  the  left- 
hand  side,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  from  above  (Dr.  R.  Liebrich,  "School-life 
in  its  influence  on  Sight  "). 


92  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

Educational  Bodies  have  decreed  that  Vertical  Writing  be  adopted 
in  their  Schools,  and  have  also  issued  directions  and  instructions 
for  the  use  of  their  teachers. 

For  example,  the  Imperial  and  Royal  National  School  Board 
of  Bohemia  appends  to  its  decree  concerning  Vertical  Writing  the 
following  recommendations  to  its  teachers. 

1.  Careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  strict  maintenance 
of  the  straight  middle  position  of  the  Book  so  that  the  lines  of 
writing  run  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  desk. 

2.  In  the  initial  teaching  the  lines  should  be  short.     For  this 
reason  the  pages  of  existing  books  must  be  divided  by  perpendi- 
cular strokes  into  two  sections  and  be  written  consecutively  like 
separate  pages. 

3.  Copying  from  subject-matter  lying  sideways  to  the  left  is 
to  be  avoided,  because  otherwise  the  children  would  sit  between 
the  writing  surface  and  the  matter  to  be  copied,  and  so  the  Middle 
position  of  the  former  would  be  lost. 

4.  Both  lower  arms  must  rest  two-thirds  on  the  desk,  quite 
symmetrically,  so  that  they  meet  before  the  middle  of  the  body 
and  there  form  a  right  angle.     Both  elbows,  and  therefore  also  the 
right-,  should  be  at  least  a  handbreadth  distant  from  the  trunk. 

5.  The  hand  in  the  act  of  writing  should  be  placed  in  such  a 
way  that  the  palm  (the  inner  surface  of  the  hand)  is  perpendicular 
to  the  desk,  or  only  a  little  inclined  to  the  left.     The  little  finger 
edge  of  the  palm  must  not  touch  the  writing  surface,  the  hand 
must  rest  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  nail  joint  of  the  little  finger, 
which  should  be  slightly  bent  like  the  ring  finger  resting  on  it,  on 
which  again,  the  middle  finger  and  through  it  the  whole  group  of 
the  three  fingers  that  guide  the  pen-holder  have  to  be  supported. 

6.  The   pen-holder  should  be  light,  thick,  not  smooth,  and 
suitably  long.     It  should  be  lightly  grasped  at  a  distance  of  3  c.m. 
from  the  point  of  the  pen,  the  middle  finger  should  be  laid  on 
the  holder  in  such  a  way  that  the  latter  is  pressed  lightly  against 
the  middle  of  the  nail-joint  cf  the  middle  finger  by  the  thumb 
lying  on  the  left  side.     The  fore-finger  forms  a  plain  curve  with- 
out any  cramping  of  its  joints. 


POSITIONS   OF   WRITER   BOOK   AND   PEN  93 

7.  The  upper  end  of  the  holder  must  be  directed  towards  the 
elbow,  but  never  towards  the  shoulder  of  the  writer  and  be  inclined 
about  45°  to  the  surface  of  the  writing.     The  pen  should  not  be 
too  fine  but  somewhat  broad  and  elastic. 

8.  The  writing  arm  must  again  and  again  be  pushed  to  the 
right  so  that  its  successive  positions  always  remain  parallel.     This 
gliding  takes  place  on  the  nail-joint  of  the  little  finger,  but  not  on 
the  ball  of  the  hand  which  should  be  slightly  elevated  over  the 
base  point  of  support. 

9.  The  book  or  paper  must,  after  every  line,  be  pushed  up 
accordingly,   in    order   that   a   suitable  distance  may  be   always 
preserved  between  the  point  of  the  writing  pen  and  the  lower 
edge  of  the  desk. 

10.  The  upper  body  ought  not  to  bend  forward,  the  breast 
should  not  be  supported  on  the  edge  of  the  desk,  the  head  should 
be  bent  only  s  ightly,  the  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  writing 
should  amount  to  from  30  to  35  c.m. 

11.  The  writing  never  ought  to  last  for  a  long  time  uninter- 
ruptedly, but  should  be  broken  by  a  few  minutes  at  short  intervals, 
and   in    the   pause   thus    made    easy   free-exercises   should    be 
executed. 

12.  With  respect  to  the  fact  that  the  first  part  of  the  primers 
hitherto  in  use  is  still  written  in  the  oblique  style,  the  exercises  in 
the  reading  and  writing  of  the  Vertical  Style  are  to  be  taken  on 
the  black-board  so  long  as  no  primers  with  Upright  Penmanship 
are  approved. 

Other  bodies  are  issuing  similar  instructions.  Indeed  .the 
seven  rules  drawn  up  by  the  Commission  on  Vertical  writing, 
appointed  by  the  Society  of  Public  Hygiene  at  Niirnberg,  are 
identical  with  a  corresponding  number  of  those  already  given  from 
the  Bohemia  School  Board. 

How  closely  these  approximate  to  the  English  instructions 
formulated  and  circulated  by  the  Author  seven  or  eight  years  ago 
the  reader  can  observe  for  himself. 

No  teacher  need  have  the  slightest  hesitation  in  introducing 


94  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

and  adopting  the  Upright  Style  and  Posture.  Even  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  system,  it  can  advantageously 
be  employed  in  classes  and  schools  with  the  assurance  of  satis- 
factory and  superior  results. 

The  only  variation  on  the  above  canon  is  in  Ornamental 
Penmanship,  a  subject  which  we  do  not  contemplate  discussing  at 
length  in  this  work.  A  passing  reference  is  all  that  is  necessary. 
The  phrase  includes  the  production  of  Ornate  Alphabets  such  as 
Old  English,  German  Text  and  the  like,  and  also  the  department 
of  Striking  or  Flourishing  which  consists  in  embellishing  alphabets 
or  letters  with  free  graceful  and  intricate  curves,  and  further 
in  striking  out  animals,  birds  and  other  objects  in  flourishing 
outlines  with  the  pen.  Our  Writing  Masters  from  the  i6th 
Century  to  some  fifty  years  ago  excelled  in  this  Artistic  acquire- 
ment, indeed  their  specimens  of  elaborate  design  and  flourish 
are  something  wonderful  to  behold.  In  order  to  arrive  at  any 
degree  of  perfection  in  this  branch  an  immense  amount  of  time 
and  much  laborious  practice  are  required.  Consequently  Orna- 
mental Penmanship  is  now  almost  entirely  relegated  to  the 
lithographer  and  engraver,  as  even  were  it  easily  acquired  (which 
it  is  not)  the  pressure  of  modern  commercial  life  would  render  it 
both  superfluous  and  impracticable.  Hence  nothing  beyond 
plain  Handwriting  is  taught  in  our  best  Schools,  and  Writing 
Masters,  whose  recommendations  consisted  in  the  marvellous 
Caligraphic  and  beautifully  written  specimens  of  flourishing 
Designs  they  could  display,  have  disappeared  and  left  not  a 
vestige  behind,  save  in  the  preservation  of  some  of  their  Master- 
pieces in  our  National  Museums  and  Libraries. 

The  rules  for  holding  the  pen  in  flourishing  are  quite  different 
to  those  obtaining  in  plain  writing.  The  pen  should  point  quite 
outwards  to  the  right  and  the  two  forefingers  must  be  bent  up 
and  not  kept  straight  or  nearly  so  as  in  ordinary  current  hand. 


95 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ANALYSIS    OF    ALPHABET    AND    LETTERS 

THE  English  Alphabet  is  both  written  and  printed  in  two  kinds 
of  letters-  Capital  and  Small.  In  this  chapter  we  are  concerned 
solely  with  the  written  or  Script  Alphabet.  So  many  diversified 
forms  have  been  given  and  are  at  present  in  use  for  Script 
Capitals,  and  also,  but  in  a  much  less  degree,  for  small  letters 
that  it  may  be  advisable  to  give  a  series  of  outlines,  which  shall 
contain  as  far  as  possible  all  the  essentials  of  a  clear  bold  and 
elegant  simplicity,  and  shall  at  the  same  time,  by  the  facility  with 
which  they  are  made,  secure  the  highest  possible  rate  of  speed. 
On  this  series  will  be  based  the  analysis  which,  so  far  as  general 
elements  can  be  grouped,  arranges  the  letters  for  class  instruc- 
tion. 

The  small  letters  are 

a  Ir  c  ct e  I  a  fi  i  i  It  I 

m  Tb  a  h,  CI  T  4  t  tl  TJ 

(JO        X     U    Ty 

FIG.  27. 

with  the  following  duplicate  forms  \j  S  "X,  Z  which 
have  a  numerous  following  of  ardent  supporters.  In  selecting  the 


96  MANUAL   OF    ilANDWRITING 

outlines  for  our  Capitals  the  aim  has  been  to  adopt  as  far  as  could 
be  done  the  assimilations  to  the  small  letters  whenever  greater 
simplicity,  ease  or  speed  would  be  thereby  attained. 
The  Capitals  are 


FIG.  i8. 

The  variations  on  the  above  are  simply  legion,  but  it  would  be 
difficult  if  not  impossible  to  find  shorter  outlines  or  plainer. 

Returning  to  the  small  letters,  they  naturally  group  themselves 
into  about  eight  classes  which  are  fairly  distinctive.  For  all  teach- 
ing purposes  this  analysis  will  be  found  sufficiently  elaborate  in 
its  gradation  and  scientific  in  its  principle  of  arrangement. 


Class  I. 


(JU        t       Class  V'     I/      Tb 

IT.    Tb   TTL    h,      „    vi.      I/      a  U 

vii.   fr    ir  v 


„  in.    c    -e     o 


„  iv.    Ou     (       O/        ,,vm.  A 

Variations    on    the     above    scheme    can    be   made   without 
materially  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching. 

Many    eminent  authorities   for     nstance  object  to  the  early 


ANALYSIS    OF    ALPHABET    AND    LETTERS  97 

introduction  of  the  long  letters  and  there  is  admitted  force  in  their 
objections.  Naturally  if  we  permit  expediency  to  enter  intc  the 
analysis  the  scientific  aspect  and  character  must  suffer,  at  least  to 
some  extent. 

Recognising  however  the  strength  of  the  arguments  adduced,  a 
second  classification  is  offered  which  it  is  hoped  will  fully  satisfy 
all  requirements  as  to  the  gradual  introduction  of  the  long 
letters. 

Class    1.     b      W     n     TTL  Class   V.      t      K     (L 


TT  c  jp  rr  vi 

11        **•  Vy  *O  vx  " 

,   in.  1^  07  LAJ  „  vii.     L     O. 

iv.  CL  A  X  »VIIL 


l  to  t 


Class  I. — The   letters  /  consist 


FIG.  31. 

solely  of  the  right  line  and  the  final  curve  line,  which  is  generally 
called  a  link,  the  dot  of  the  i  and  the  cross  of  the  t  not  being 
constituent  elements  properly  so  called.  As  all  words  and  com- 
binations of  letters  are  written  continuously  the  letters  of  this 
class  will  join  each  other  chiefly  at  the  upper  end. 

A  set  of  headlines  on  these  three  letters  will  begin  with  the 
right  line,  then  the  link  should  be  introduced,  lastly  combinations 
of  the  character  formed  of  the  right  line  and  link.  Even  at  this 
early  stage  the  teacher  should  endeavour  to  secure  perfect  rigidity 
of  the  down  strokes,  and  strange  as  it  may  seem,  such  honest 
endeavour  will  generally  be  successful. 

H 


98 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


Class    II.    introduces    but  one    new   element  viz.  the    initial 
curve   cr   as   it   is    called   the   hook.     Again    but   three    letters 


compose  this  group  one  of 


FIG.  32. 

which,  p,  will  offer  some  difficulty  because  of  its  extraordinary 
length.  Why  should  not  English  teachers  introduce  the  custom 
so  common  on  the  Continent  and  begin  the  p  at  the  top  of  the 
small  letters  instead  of  commencing  it  so  far  above  them?  It 
would  be  quite  as  legible  and  distinctive. 


FIG.  33. 

For  our  own  part  we  much  prefer  the  short  stroke  whether  from  a 
practical  or  an  educational  standpoint.  The  junctions  in  this 
group  will  principally  be  at  the  foot  of  the  stroke  and  at  or  near 
the  top,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 


Exercises  and  Headlines  on  this  and  succeeding  classes  will  of 
course  contain  abundant  practice  on  all  preceding  letters  and 
classes. 

Class  III.  including  the  simple  curved  letters  will  require  some 

care,  the  tapering  strokes  peculiar  to      f  I)         (} 

w   -\y   U 


FIG.  35. 


ANALYSIS   OF   ALPHABET   AND    LETTERS 


99 


being  novel  and  not  easy  to  accomplish.  Blackboard  illustration 
with  a  profuse  series  of  varied  headline  copies  will  overcome  every 
difficulty. 

In  forming  the  letter  e  the  up  stroke  must  never  be  broken 
but  the  up  stroke  from  a  preceding  letter  must  be  continued 
without  any  angular  deflection  into  the  loop  of  the  e  as  shown  in 
the  diagram  (Fig.  36). 


wron 


FIG.  36. 


With  regard  to  the  letter  o  it  is  begun  on  the  top  and  not  at 
the  side  which  would  necessitate  a  lifting  of  the  pen. 

OTb  TUT 


FIG.  37. 

Class  IV.     The  three  members  of  this  class 


cu  cLa 


FIG.  38. 

are  merely  adaptations  of  elements  previously  given.  There  is  a 
notion  abroad  that,  since  a  and  cognate  letters  are  apparently 
made  up  of  the  letter  o  and  other  characters,  consequently  a 
perfect  o  must  first  be  written  before  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
letters  (a,  d,  g  and  q).  To  restrict  writing  to  any  such  arbitrary  and 
rigid  laws  would  be  to  greatly  discount  its  highest  function.  And 
besides  such  rules  are  never  observed  in  ordinary  penmanship 
where  utility  will  over-ride  all  such  limiting  and  cramping  regula- 


IOO 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


tions.  What  we  must  have  is  simplicity  of  outline,  ease  of  junction 
and  rapidity  in  tracing ;  it  is  therefore  recommended  that  for  pur- 
poses of  continuity  and  speed  the  connecting  upstrokes  of  these 
letters  rise  from  the  outside  in  large  and  set  small  hands,  whilst 
for  running  or  corresponding  writing  they  rise  from  the  inside. 

Class  V.  brings  us  to  the  upward  loop  letters  of  which  the 
simplest  representatives  are  1  and  h.  The  Joop  as  a  rule  forms 
half  the  extreme  length  of  the  letter  although  in  small  hand  it 
is  slightly  longer.  The  loop  should  be  well  and  boldly  made 
particular  care  being  taken  to  guard  against  the  common  danger 
and  fault  of  curving  the  down  strokes,  as  in  the  right-hand  figure. 


RIGHT 


WRONG 


Inverting  the  loops  we  reach 
Class  VI.  composed  of 


L 


FIG.  40. 


in  which  the  same*  rules  as  to  length  apply  so  far  as  the  loops 
are  concerned.  As  previously  stated  the  loops  in  all  letters 
should  be  made  sufficiently  long  for  legibility,  but  not  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  longer  than  is  necessary  to  achieve  that  end. 

As  in  the  preceding  class  the  greatest  danger  will  be  in  the 
down  stroke.  It  must  be  made  absolutely  right  or  straight 

When  loops  are  curved  an  insipid  and  imperfect  style  is  deve- 


ANALYSIS   OF   ALPHABET   AND 


loped  whereas  when  the  rigid  right  lines^ ^r^^msistei  upon;  t^e 
writing  becomes  strikingly  precise,  nervous  and  pleasing. 


Class  VII.  contains  the  crotchet  letters 


UJ 


FIG. 


The  crotchet  is  not  hard  to  make  and  the  open  form  is  pre- 
ferable to  the  closed  style  as  it  is  made  with  greater  ease  and 
imparts  more  freedom  to  writing,  although  in  very  rapid  caligraphy 
it  resolves  itself  into  a  mere  angle.  Both  kinds  however  are  in 
constant  use. 

Class  VIII.  The  five  remaining  letters  of  the  alphabet  which 
form  this  group  have  no  principle  in  common,  nor  can  they  con- 
veniently enter  into  any  other  class. 


A 
D 


FIG.  43. 

The  letter  s  rises  above  the  other  small  letters  as  does  also 


^»  MANUAL  OK  HANDWRITING 
ruvhsrr  written  in  this   form.     The  two  following  ex- 
tremes of  the  s  must  be  avoided. 

L 

FIG.  44. 

X  may  be  considered  as  formed  of  two  c's  placed  back  to  back 
the  first  being  inverted.  This  letter  has  several  modifications  and 
it  is  the  only  letter  that  as  a  rule  requires  the  pen  to  be  lifted 
in  its  formation.  Two  of  the  modifications  however  are  continu- 
ous although  neither  of  them  is  very  frequently  met  with. 

F  is  a  very  long  letter  having  two  loops  both  of  which  should 
be  boldly  made  as  in  Fig.  43. 

Z  is  also  totally  unlike  any  of  its  fellows  and  will  require  sepa- 
rate treatment. 

Ample  practice  should  be  afforded  on  these  unique  outlines. 

Lastly  the  letter  k  comes  in  with  its  compound  and  difficult 


FIG.  45. 

curves.  How  often  is  it  that  we  see  a  graceful  or  a  nice-look- 
ing k  ?  Very  seldom  indeed,  and  the  four  outlines  in  the 
adjoining  figure  are  typical  of  the  distortions  that  do  duty  for  the 
genuine  article. 

The  Capitals  may  be  dismissed  with  but  few  remarks.  They 
are  made  up  primarily  of  Curves  and  it  is  the  shape  and  several 
or  relative  sizes  of  these  Curves  that  cause  most  trouble. 

The  characters  should  be  analyzed  on  the  blackboard  and 
full)  explained,  the  relation  of  the  various  parts  being  clearly 
defined  and  illustrated. 

Afterwards  the  pupils  may  be  left  to  imitate  their  headlines, 
careful  supervision  being  all  that  is  required.  An  approximate 


ANALYSIS   OF   ALPHABET    AND    LETTERS  IO3 

classification  of  the  Capital  letters  is  the  only  possible  one,  unless 
the  divisions  be  unreasonably  multiplied. 

They  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  order : 

Class    I  :  V,  U,  W,  N,  M,  Y. 
„     II  :  O,  A,  C5  G,  E. 
„    III:  P,  B,  R. 
„    IV  :  I,  J,  T,  F. 
„      V  :  S,  L. 
„     VI  :  D,  H,  Q,  X,  Z. 

This  or  some  similar  gi  on  ping  of  the  Capitals  should  be 
followed  that  the  instruction  may  be  properly  graduated,  the 
scholars  being  specially  urged  to  examine  and  imitate  the 
engraved  headline  copies,  for  if  the  pupil  succeed  in  securing  a 
vivid  mental  conception  of  the  true  outline  of  any  letter  he  will 
find  little  difficulty  in  transferring  that  conception  to  paper ;  the 
trouble  as  previously  intimated  is  not  so  much  with  the  fingers  as 
with  the  brain. 


IO4  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


CHAPTER   IX 

METHODS    OF    INSTRUCTION    AND    DIRECTIONS    FOR 
CLASS    TEACHING 

Two  methods  which  have  been  propounded  for  the  teaching  of 
writing  have  commended  themselves  strongly  and  successfully  t  j 
the  approval  of  the  profession.  One  of  these  was  elaborated  by 
Mulhauser  with  whose  system  every  teacher  is  more  or  less 
familiar,  the  other  emanated  from  Locke.  Both  methods  have 
their  merits  and  both  their  disadvantages,  as  might  be  expected 
when  the  undeveloped  character  of  the  art  and  science  of  writing 
at  the  time  is  taken  into  consideiation. 

Mulhauser's  Method  is  analytic  and  then  Synthetic.  He  first 
decomposes  the  letters  into  their  fundamental  strokes,  calling  these 
respectively  the  right  line,  curve  line,  loop  and  crotchet.  The 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  then  classified  according  to  this  analysis 
as  follows  : 

Class  i.  i,  u,  t,  1  (right  line  and  link). 

„  2.  n,  m.  h,  p  (hook,  right  line  and  link). 

„  3.  c,  e,  o  (curve  line). 

„  4.  a,  d,  q  (curve,  right  line  and  link). 

„  5.  g,  j,  y  (loop  letters). 

„  6.  b,  f,  r,  v,  w  (crotchet  letters). 

„  7.  k,  s,  x,  z  (anomalous  or  irregular  letters). 

As  an  aid  to  the  pupils  the  Copy  Books  are  ruled  in  rhom- 
boids (the  style  being  slanting)  to  regulate  the  size,  width  and 
slope  of  the  writing. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  are  that  it  is  scientific  in  its 
analysis,  graduated — to  an  extent — in  its  arrangement,  and 


METHODS   OF    INSTRUCTION  IO5 

intelligent  in  its  general  construction  and  j.resentation  to  the 
juvenile  mind.  Many  objections  have  been  taken  hovever  to  the 
scheme  by  teachers,  some  of  which  are  more  fanciful  than  real  and 
others  more  prejudiced  than  pertinent.  There  are  certainly  how- 
ever (apart  from  the  vital  objection  of  slope)  some  few  drawbacks, 
but  these  do  not  militate  sufficiently  to  destroy  its  value  as  a 
feasible  and  workable  method  on  which  to  teach  writing,  if 
teachers  will  only  modify  it  as  the  requirements  of  their  classes 
demand.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  classification  given  in  these 
pages  (p.  96)  resembles  that  of  Mulhauser  from  which  it  varies 
only  in  a  slight  degree  warranted  we  think  by  the  incongruity  of 
presenting— as  Mulhauser  does — the  very  difficult  long  letters 
h  and  1  before  such  easy  letters  as  c,  e,  O,  and  elsewhere  simi- 
larly. 

Many  of  Locke's  ideas  are  forceful,  but  some  are  certainly 
peculiar.  He  insists  that  children  shall  be  taught,  and  perfectly 
taught,  how  to  hold  the  pen  before  they  are  allowed  to  make  a 
stroke.  He  also  maintains  that  large  hand  shall  be  taught  before 
small  hand,  and  that  writing  shall  for  a  considerable  length  of  time 
consist  of  tracing  over  faint  red-ink  outlines  printed  in  the  Copy 
books.  His  method  may  therefore  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows  : 

Stjp  i.  How  to  hold  the  pen. 

„  2.  How  to  sit  and  to  place  the  book. 

„  3.  Tracing  over  large  hand  copies  in  faint  red  ink. 

}>  4-          »         »     small     ,,         ,,       ,,      ,,      ,j     n 

„  5.  Copying  from  large-hand  Headlines. 

„  6.         „  „     small     „  „ 

There  is  an  unquestioned  advantage,  which  none  can  fail  to 
recognise,  in  teaching  a  child  how  to  hold  the  pen  at  the  very 
beginning  of  his  caligraphic  course,  but  whether  it  is  better  to  do 
this  before  a  stroke  is  made  or  whilst  the  strokes  are  being  made 
is  a  question  for  discussion.  So  long  as  the  right  way  of  holding 
the  pen  is  secured  (and  it  may  certainly  be  secured  by  both 
methods)  it  will  matter  very  little  as  to  the  exact  and  relative 


106  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

moment  when  it  shall  be  accomplished.  The  tracing,  especially 
so  much  of  it  as  Locke  recommends,  is  now  considered  injurious 
rather  than  otherwise  by  the  majority  of  critics.  In  the  most 
elementary  stages  tracing  is  helpful  ;  afterwards  we  believe  to  be 
harmful.  Lastly,  beginning  with  a  very  large  hand  is  an  evil 
already  proved  and  we  need  not  recapitulate. 

The  general  method  prescribed  in  this  manual  may  be  looked 
upon  as  being  compounded  of  the  two  just  reviewed,  one  in  which 
the  danger  of  too  much  science  in  the  one  case,  and  of  too  much 
mechanical  art  in  the  other  are  euually  avoided. 

In  offering,  shall  we  say  in  presuming  to  offer,  a  few  directions 
for  class  teaching  there  is  great  risk  in  running  foul  of  many  old- 
fashioned  and  established  prejudices.  Perhaps  on  no  point 
connected  with  School  Work  is  there  so  great  a  multiplicity  of 
opinions  as  to  how  writing  should  be  taught.  No  two  persons  in 
a  hundred  will  agree  on  half  a  dozen  given  questions.  Authors  of 
Manuals  on  Education,  Inspectors,  Training  College  Lecturers, 
and  Teachers  are  all  individually  so  many  separate,  independent, 
and  oracular  authorities  as  to  how  to  teach  writing. 

And  we  are  not  now  referring  so  much  to  methods  in  general 
as  to  processes  in  particular.  Whatever  method  be  adopted 
"  How  shall  it  be  taught  successfully  "  ?  is  what  concerns  us. 

Presumably  there  is  a  satisfactory  answer  to  this  question.  It 
is  certainly  possible  to  invest  the  teaching  of  writing  with  an 
interest  that  shall  render  the  subject  most  attractive  to  the  pupils 
and  there  is  no  reason  why  the  writing  lesson  should  not  be  one 
of  the  most  fascinating  studies  in  the  schoolroom.  Of  course  to 
attain  this  the  master  must  first  of  all  be  enthusiastic  himself, 
for  Enthusiasm  is  Contagious.  To  do  a  thing  well  it  must  be 
done  thoroughly  ;  in  the  teaching  of  penmanship  equally  as  in 
other  departments.  Teachers  must  be  energetic,  lively  and  earnest, 
then  and  not  till  then  will  the  classes  be  interested,  enthusiastic 
and  determined.  It  will  be  found  profitable  to  introduce  dis- 
cussions in  the  class  when  such  and  such  outlines  are  analysed 
or  illustrated  on  the  Blackboard.  Intense  excitement  for  instance 
can  be  roused  on  the  duplicate  forms  of  such  letters  as  s,  r, 


METHODS   OF    INSTRUCTION  IO/ 

X,  z,  and  whilst  inviting  and  encouraging  the  free  expression  of 
opinion  the  teacher  can  guide  the  minds  of  his  pupils  to  a  right 
and  sound  conclusion  by  his  own  matured  views  and  higher 
knowledge. 

Another  valuable  adjunct  is  Class  Practice  on  the  Blackboard. 
Nothing  in  the  round  of  everyday  School  life  is  more  appreciated 
by  children  than  this  interesting  exercise.  A  certain  word  or 
phrase  is  proposed,  and  selected  pupils  are  required  to  write  it  on 
the  Board.  (This  selection  of  pupils  should  include  the  entire 
class  in  rotation,  any  preferential  distinctions  being  invidious  and 
quickly  detected  by  the  juveniles.)  When  the  Blackboard  is  filled, 
or  a  sufficient  number  have  written,  the  \\ork  of  criticism  begins 
and  may  occasionally  be  allowed  to  culminate  in  a  vote  as  to  which 
is  the  best  line. 

During  the  criticism,  which  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  may 
be  rendered  highly  educative  as  well  as  deeply  absorbing,  and 
whilst  the  faults,  exaggerations,  defects,  &c.,  are  carefully  noted 
the  scholars  should  be  encouraged  to  discover  the  several  points 
of  excellence,  as  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  Commendation 
animates  the  (juvenile)  mind  and  proves  one  of  the  most  powerful 
levers  at  the  disposal  of  the  teacher. 

A  lesson  of  this  kind  once  a  fortnight  or  so  will  be  eagerly 
anticipated  by  the  pupils,  and  it  will  prove  also  an  efficient  and 
agreeable  relief  to  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  writing  class. 

A  further  variety  consists  in  a  given  copy  being  written  in 
different  ways  by  the  teacher  on  the  Blackboard,  to  be  inspected 
and  criticised  by  the  class.  The  zest  displayed  in  criticising  his 
work  will  be  as  amusing  as  surprising,  and  not  the  less  profit- 
able. Every  defect  will  be  keenly  scrutinised,  every  possible 
shade  of  opinion  expressed  and  progress  proportionately  stimu- 
lated. 

Then  again  interest  of  a  totally  different  kind  may  be  intro- 
duced by  occasional  competitions  amongst  the  pupils,  such  as 
racing  against  time  or  against  each  other.  Let  a  certain  extract 
be  prescribed  and  instruct  the  class  to  copy  out  accurately,  and 
well,  and  as  quickly  as  possible  until  the  signal  to  stop  is  sounded. 


IDS  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

Then  the  work  being  collected  it  is  arranged  in  order  of  merit,  due 
allowance  for  quantity  being  made  when  marking  for  quality. 

A  modification  of  this  exercise  is  to  write  a  Copy  on  the  black- 
board for  imitation  and  repetition  during  a  certain  specified  time 
as  before.  The  pupils  who  are  conspicuous  for  their  slowness  in 
these  practices  should  have  extra  time  given  them  for  separate 
tuition,  that  they  may  become  more  expeditious.  If  each  week 
the  best  specimens  thus  produced  were  on  exhibition  in  th-j  Class 
or  Schoolroom,  the  writers  would  be  encouraged  to  a  still  greater 
degree  of  effort  and  ambition. 

Yet  another  variation  is  to  get  a  volunteer  to  write  a  copy  on 
the  Blackboard  and  afterwards  to  criticise  it  himself.  This  varia- 
tion frequently  gives  rise  to  very  entertaining  but  also  beneficial 
remarks.  Pupils  grow  increasingly  expert  at  the  task  and  thus 
insensibly  to  themselves,  the  development  of  their  mental  apprecia- 
tion and  mechanical  ability  in  the  art  of  writing  progresses  with 
great  rapidity.  A  word  or  two  with  reference  to  Home  Work. 
All  the  labour  of  the  teacher  will  be  greatly  discounted  if  not 
neutralized  should  he  neglect  to  strictly  supervise  the  written 
Home  exercises  of  his  scholars.  Special  marks  for  neatness  in  all 
written  work  should  be  awarded,  and  penalties  of  varying  character 
be  inflicted  for  deliberate  carelessness  in  this  matter.  Where  the 
ordinary  arithmetical  and  written  exercises  are  thus  made  to  sup- 
plement and  support  the  class  teaching,  results  of  the  happiest 
kind  will  inevitably  follow. 

A  flagrant  case  of  scribble  reproduced  by  the  Master  on  the 
Blackboard  for  the  adverse  criticism  of  his  Schoolfellows  will 
generally  act  as  a  specific  for  either  spasmodic  or  chronic  cases, 
since  boys  do  not  relish  the  idea  of  being'tield  up  to  either  ridicule 
or  censure  from  their  own  companions. 

Many  other  expedients  of  a  similar  kind  can  be  resorted  to  for 
the  purpose  of  engendering  a  praiseworthy  emulation  amongst  the 
writers.  Every  week  will  possess  its  special  opportunity  and 
supply  material  wherewith  to  point  a  lesson  or  adorn  a  rule.  Now 
it  may  be  a  curious  manuscript ;  again  it  will  be  an  equally  curious 
letter  that  can  thus  be  utilized.  Finally  a  most  powerful  stimulus 


METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION  109 

can  be  infused  into  the  class  by  periodically  placing  the  Copy 
Books  in  order  of  merit  and  exhibiting  the  list  on  the  Notice 
Board— a  test  of  their  comparative  merits  which  finds  favour 
immensely  with  the  pupils,  who  are  thus  encouraged  to  strain 
every  power  in  the  desire  and  struggle  to  get  well  placed. 

The  following  general  instructions  for  class-teaching  include 
most  if  not  all  the  chief  points  that  can  arise  in  a  writing  lesson. 

1.  Secure  and  maintain  correct  position  of  writers,  books  and 
pens. 

2.  See  that  every  pupil  is  provided  will  all  necessary  material. 

3.  Remind  the  class  at  the  beginning  of  each  lesson  that  the 
writing  must  be  uniform  in  Size,  Shape  and  Direction. 

4.  Strongly  forbid  all  quick  writing. 

5.  Make  a  liberal  use  of  the  Blackboard  for  purposes  of  ana- 
lysis, correction  and  illustration. 

6.  Permit  no  pupil  to  remain  idle  or  unemployed  waiting  for 
others    to    finish  :  let    each  writer   work   independently   of    his 
fellows. 

7.  Insist  upon  continuity  in  the  writing  of  every  word  save 
those  in  which  the  letter  x  occurs. 

8.  Frequently  remind   the   Class   that  writing   is   a  kind  of 
drawing  and  that  the  sole  object  is  to  fac- simile  the  Copies. 

9.  Let  your  motto  be  approval  rather  than  censure. 

10.  Pens  must  not  be  wiped  on  the  dress  nor  must  ink  be 
jerked  or  thrown  upon  the  floor. 

11.  Writers  must  not  paint  their  letters,  that  is  thicken  or 
mend  them  after 'being  once  made. 

12.  Always  mark  the  writing  relatively,  and  not  apart  from  the 
age  and  ability  of  the  writer. 

13.  Avoid  favouritism  ;  encourage  naturally  poor  writers  ;  be 
severely  strict  with  all  careless  pupils. 

14.  Rather  give  copy  books  that  are   too   easy   than  those 
which  are  too  difficult. 

15.  Utilize  all  available  Competitions  for  your  classes.     The 
stimulus  of  "  Prizes  "  or  "  Rewards  "  is  universally  needed  in  every 
walk  of  life,  more  particularly  in  a  juvenile  writing  Class. 


I  10  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

1 6.  Make  a  special  study  of  any  hopelessly  bad  writers  :  never 
despair  of  entirely  reforming  such. 

17.  Post  the  names  of  the  best  writers  and  of  the  most  diligent 
writers  on  the  walls  of  the  Class  or  Schoolroom. 

1 8.  Caution  the  class  against  plunging  pens  to  the  bottom  of 
the  inkwells. 

19.  Guard  against  writing  too  long  at  once;  relieve  by  rests 
in  which  theory  may  be  illustrated  on  blackboard. 

20.  In  writing,  more  than  in  any  other  subject,  strive  to  keep 
the  pupils  in  a  good  humour. 


We  shall  conclude  this  chapter  with  a  few  hints  to  writers. 

MULTUM  IN  PARVO. 

1.  Write  vertically. 

2.  Write  continuously. 

3.  Write  uniformly. 

4.  Write  plainly. 

5.  Write  slowly. 

6.  Discard  all  flourishes. 

7.  Make  the  simplest  capital  letters  possible. 

8.  Avoid  heavy  or  thick  writing. 

9.  Make  short  loops. 

10.  Don't  grasp  the  pen  tightly. 

11.  Keep  the  fingers'  ends  clear  of  the  nib. 

12.  Use  plain  penholders  not  fancy  ones. 

13.  Avoid  striking  pen  to  bottom  of  inkstand. 

14.  Use  a  wet  sponge  for  penwiper. 

15.  Always  keep  the  thumb  slightly  bent  up. 

16.  Write  evenly  with  both  points  of  the  nib. 

17.  Push  up  the  book  as  the  writing  descends. 

1 8.  Sit  easy  and  erect  before  the  book. 

19.  Avoid  all  twisting  of  the  body. 

20.  Keep  both  arms  free  from  the  sides. 

21.  Point  the  pen  towards  the  elbow. 

22.  Keep  the  fingers  easily  straight. 


Ill 


CHAPTER   X 

HISTORY    OF    VERTICAL     WRITING    AND     ITS     REVIVAL 

THE  History  of  Vertical  Writing  is  the  History  of  all  Writing,  as, 
up  to  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century  such  a  thing  as  Sloping 
Writing  was  unknown.  In  its  earliest  and  crudest  forms  writing 
was  upright,  whether  pictorial,  hieroglyphic  or  alphabetical.  It 
has  never  been  definitely  ascertained  and  probably  never  will  be 
whether  writing  originated  in  one  centre,  radiating  thence  to  other 
and  surrounding  Countries,  or  concurrently  in  several  and  all 
independent  of  each  other.  The  Mexican  and  Chinese  yield  us 
the  most  ancient  specimens,  whilst  the  honour  of  discovering  the 
Alphabet  alternates  between  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians. 

In  England  and  on  the  Continent  alike  all  writing  is  vertical 
until  we  reach  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  From  about  A.D.  596  to  the 
Norman  Conquest  the  writing  in  Britain  was  Saxon  and  of  five 
distinctive  kinds.  i.  The  Roman  Saxon,  2.  The  Set  Saxon, 
3.  The  running  hand  Saxon,  4.  The  Middle  Saxon,  and  5.  The 
Elegant  Saxon.  William  the  First  then  introduced  the  Norman 
style  which  like  its  Saxon  predecessor  was  perpendicular  and 
remained  so  until  the  introduction  of  the  Italian  Sloping  hand  as 
mentioned.  The  Vertical  Style  survived  much  longer  in  some 
parts  on  the  Continent  but  as  will  be  seen  from  the  plates  of  speci- 
mens chronologically  arranged  (Figs.  46  to  49)  German  handwriting 
succumbed  to  the  new  fashion  much  in  the  same  way  and  at  the 
same  time  as  its  neighbours.  The  posture,  erect  and  straight, 
adopted  by  writers  in  those  times  is  depicted  in  Figs,  i  and  2, 
as  is  also  the  middle  straight  position  of  the  book  or  parchment. 
In  the  sixteenth  century,  then,  Lawyers  began  to  engross  their 
conveyances  and  legal  instruments  in  Sloping  characters  or  letters 


112 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


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HISTORY   OF    VERTICAL   WRITING  AND   ITS  REVIVAL     113 


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MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


HISTORY  OF   VERTICAL  WRITING  AND  ITS   REVIVAL     115 


Il6 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


called  "  Secretary  "  which  with  only  slight  modification  still  survive. 
These  Secretary  letters,  forming  the  first  loping  written  alphabet 
ever  introduced  into  England,  are  reproduced  here  as  being  of  a 
most  interesting  nature  (Fig.  50).  It  will  be  noticed  on  examina- 


5"- 


tion  that  all  the  more  complex  outlines  have  now  been  dropped  as 
for  instance  the  S,  r,  and  p,  and  where  not  dropped  have  become 
much  simplified  e.g.  the  Capitals  D,  H,  K,  M,  N,  &c.  This 
sloping  alphabet  has  been  in  general  use  for  two  centuries,  Verti- 


HISTORY    OF    VERTICAL    WRITING   AND   ITS    REVIVAL      I  I/ 

cal  Writing  having  disappeared  one  may  say  almost  completely 
from  every  department  of  Caligraphy. 

The  sloping  innovation  was  considered  so  favourable  to  the 
development  of  a  new  art  (the  art  of  flourishing)  by  which 
Writing  Masters  could  exhibit  their  wonderful  caligraphic  gym- 
nastics that  it  quickly  became  general  and  in  a  comparatively 
short  time  universal. 

Mysterious  and  incapable  of  explanation  are  the  phenomenon 
and  the  fact  that  no  recorded  serious  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to 
revive  the  discarded  and  forgotten  Vertical  Style  until  about  seven 
years  ago,  when  the  first  Series  of  Headline  Copy  Books  in 
Upright  Penmanship  appeared,  as  the  pioneer  of  a  movement 
that  has  grown  to  most  gratifying  proportions.  Literature  on 
Vertical  Writing  followed,  as  did  also  a  still  more  complete  and 
comprehensive  series  of  Vertical  Writing  Copy  Books,  and  these 
may  fairly  be  looked  upon  as  the  precursors  of  a  revival  that 
shall  replace  Upright  Penmanship  on  a  foundation,  which  is  as 
scientific  and  permanent  as  it  is  ancient  and  unrivalled. 

Several  remarkable  coincidences  have  attended  the  revival  of 
Upright  Penmanship  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  In  the 
former  both  Educational  and  medical  strivings  and  aspirations 
towards  the  Vertical  were  made  independently  and  simultaneously. 
Indeed  it  was  not  until  some  time  subsequent  to  the  publication 
of  the  first  series  of  Vertical  Writing  Copy  Books,  that  the  author 
discovered,  quite  accidentally,  that  medical  talent  had  been 
engaged  on  a  similar  quest,  had  prosecuted  a  similar  investigation, 
had  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion,  and  had  given  utterance  to 
the  same  decisions  in  various  books  and  pamphlets. 

The  Educational  movement  was  originated  and  promu  Igated 
by  a  Teacher  who  had  been  a  Vertical  Writer  from  his  youth,  and 
it  was  therefore  the  natural  outgrowth  of  a  life  study,  the  inevitable 
development  and  expression  of  a  long  and  varied  experience,  in 
which  the  superior  claims  and  advantages  of  the  System  of  Vertical 
Writing  had  been  demonstrated  repeatedly;  and  demonstrated,  be 
it  added,  under  circumstances  the  most  unfavourable  and  crucial. 
The  Medical  Investigation  which  was  carried  on  simultaneously 


Il8  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

appears  to  have  arisen  from  quite  a  foreign  source  although  it 
resulted  in  an  identical  issue.  Spinal  Curvature  and  Short  Sight 
had  become  so  general  amongst  School-children  and  were  increas- 
ing to  such  an  alarming  extent,  that  a  special  enquiry  into  the 
cause  of  such  prevalence  by  medical  men  was  considered  impera- 
tive. In  the  course  of  this  important  enquiry  many  valuable  dis- 
coveries and  suggestions  were  made,  and  as  previously  intimated 
these  researches  culminated  in  the  astonishing  revelation  that,  first, 
Slanting  Writing  was  the  undoubted  cause  of  such  seriously  im- 
paired functions  and  health,  and,  second,  that  Vertical  Writing  was 
the  only  remedy  that  could  be  prescribed.  The  wording  of  their 
decision  and  prescription  has  already  been  given,  it  could  not  be 
in  more  positive  and  unqualified  terms  (see  page  15). 

These  concurrent  agitations  dated  from  about  the  year  1870 
to  the  year  1887  when  the  two  forces  combined  (each  being  com- 
plementary to  the  other)  and  now  the  united  powers  are  concen- 
trating their  energies  on  the  same  enterprise,  and  towards  the  one 
object  of  Establishing  the  Writing  of  Our  Country  on  a 
Sound  Hygienic,  Educational,  and  Caligraphic  basis  viz.  on  the 
principles  of  Upright  Penmanship. 

But  stranger  still,  whilst  all  this  was  proceeding  in  Great  Britain 
an  exactly  identical  and  dual  movement  was  being  prosecuted  in 
several  centres  on  the  Continent  with  precisely  similar  features, 
the  Medical  taking  the  lead  or  predominating  over  the  Educational 
as  it  has  done  at  home. 

Teachers  in  Switzerland,  Wurtemburg,  Austria,  Germany  and 
Denmark,  as  well  as  in  England,  strongly  resented  this  imaginary 
encroachment  upon  their  rights ;  and  that  they  therefore  denounced 
the  finding  of  the  Doctors  as  an  infringement  of  their  prerogative 
goes  without  saying.  "  Was  it  to  be  thought  or  even  dreamed  of 
"  that  teachers  did  not  know  what  they  were  about  ?  that  the  entire 
"  profession  had  been  teaching  an  absolutely  pernicious  style  or 
"  System  of  Writing  for  all  these  years  and  generations  ?  Perish 
"the  thought!  Doctors  were— well,  to  put  it  mildly — mistaken, 
"  and  knew  nothing  about  Educational  matters  at  all ! " 

Unfortunately  a  lamentably  large  number  of  teachers,  both  at 


HISTORY   OF   VERTICAL   WRITING  AND  ITS  REVIVAL     119 

home  and  abroad,  still  shelter  themselves  behind  this  disreputable 
and  unworthy  protest,  wilfully  closing  their  eyes  and  ears  to  the 
evidence  and  facts,  and  refusing  to  be  either  convinced  or  con- 
verted. This  kind  of  opposition  soon  melted  away  on  the  con- 
tinent and  resolved  itself  into  a  much  modified  but  rational  mode 
of  objection.  As  will  be  seen  immediately,  the  logic  and  facts  of 
the  Experts  have  won  a  hearing  and  established  their  verity,  thus 
opening  up  avenues  along  which  "Vertical  Writing"  is  rapidly 
riding  on  to  victory.  But  here  the  phlegmatic  character  of  the 
Britisher  asserts  itself  for  notwithstanding  the  most  vigorous  circu- 
lation of  literature  on  the  subject,  despite  the  unanimous  and 
united  testimonies  of  hundreds  of  professional  gentlemen  both 
Medical  and  Scholastic,  and  in  the  very  face  of  the  numerous 
triumphs  of  the  System  wherever  introduced,  the  "  English 
Teacher "  is  in  many  cases  supremely  indifferent  to  the  matter, 
the  Educational  Press  gently  pats  Verticality  on  the  back,  whilst 
the  English  Government  and  Education  Department  appear  to  be 
oblivious  to  the  whole  question.  (See  note,  p.  125.) 

If  we  cross  the  channel  what  a  contrast  meets  us.  Teachers 
there  have  become  alive  to  their  responsibilities  in  the  matter, 
large  numbers  of  the  most  prominent  educationists  have  embraced 
the  system  and  adopted  it ;  numerous  teachers  are  using  and  re- 
commending it ;  Educational  Societies  and  Corporations  are  pro- 
nouncing in  favour  of  it  ;  Hygienic  Councils  are  approving  of 
and  promoting  it ;  and  Cabinets  are  not  only  sanctioning  its  use 
but  prescribing  it  in  the  schools  of  their  dominions.  The  crusade 
is  active  and  countries  are  rivalling  each  other  in  their  endeavours 
to  be  in  the  van.  From  a  voluminous  correspondence  with  Drs. 
Bayr  (Vienna),  Kotelmann  (Hamburg),  Lorenz  (Vienna),  Scharff 
(Flensburg),  Schubert  (Nuremberg)  and  other  eminent  Physicians 
and  Teachers  it  appears  that  "Vertical  Writing"  is  being 
adopted  eagerly  by  the  profession  in  many  districts  of  these 
countries.  In  Vienna  alone  for  example  Upright  Penmanship 
is  practised  in  no  less  than  80  Schools  with  300  classes,  and  by 
100  Schools  in  Bavaria.  A  brief  epitome  of  the  chief  events  in  the 
history  of  this  agitation  on  the  Continent  will  not  be  out  of  place. 


I2O  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

The  question  as  to  the  importance  of  Slope  or  direction  in 
writing  was  raised  by  Drs.  Ellinger  and  Gross  in  1877-8,  with 
the  result  that  Roman  characters  with  vertical  downstrokes  were 
recommended  in  preference  to  sloping  German  letters.  Dr. 
Martins  of  Ansbach  district  Medical  Officer  of  health  next 
brought  the  subject  before  the  Central  Franconia  Medical 
Chamber  in  1879.  In  the  following  year  Dr.  Paul  Schubert 
addressing  the  same  Medical  Board  made  an  attempt  to  show  that 
perpendicular  writing  must  supersede  the  present  sloping  style, 
and  Dr.  Cohn  at  the  Naturalists'  Congress  in  Danzig  simultane- 
ously declared  himself  for  "  steep  "  writing,  being  quite  in  ignorance 
of  Dr.  Schubert's  action.  Following  immediately  upon  this  come 
investigations  by  Drs.  Mayer  (Fiirth),  Daiber  (Stuttgart),  Weber 
(Darmstadt)  and  by  the  Paris  Commission  who  in  a  body  declared 
themselves  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing.  *  Opinions  were  of 
course  still  divided,  and  in  his  prize  essay  on  the  Causes  and 
Prevention  of  Blindness,  Professor  Fiichs  declared  that  the  final 
decision  was  only  to  be  arrived  at  from  experiments,  systematically 
conducted,  in  Vertical  Writing  in  whole  classes  and  beginning 
with  the  first  school  year.  It  was  reserved  for  the  Central  Fran- 
conia Medical  Board,  which  at  its  sittings  never  lost  sight  of 
Upright  Penmanship,  to  attack  and  promote  this  question  bringing 
it  nearer  to  the  final  issue.  In  consequence  of  a  motion  passed  in 
1887  by  this  board,  The  Royal  Bavarian  Ministry  of  the  Interior 
decided  that  experiments  in  Vertical  Writing  should  be  undertaken 
in  Schools,  on  a  larger  scale.  Hence  in  the  Autumn  of  1888  two 
first  classes  of  the  public  School  in  Fiirth  and  two  similar  ones  in 
the  training  college  in  Schwabach  began  instruction  in  writing  ex- 
clusively in  the  perpendicular  style.  These  experiments  were 
supplemented  in  the  Autumn  of  1889  by  three  first  public  School 
classes  in  Nuremberg  as  well  as  by  the  first  class  for  preparation 
of  the  humanistic  gymnasium.  At  the  same  time  perpendicular 
writing  was  introduced  into  a  series  of  Classes  by  Dr.  Bayr  in 
Vienna  and  in  Flensburg  under  Principal  Dr.  Sch  rff. 

From  all  these  schools  the  experiences  were  most  favourable 
to  Vertical  Writing.  The  declaration  of  its  superiority  in  relation 

*See  Dr.  Javal  "  Physiology  of  Writing,"  Pocket  Pedagogical  Library,  No.  3. 


HISTORY  OF   VERTICAL  WRITING  AND  ITS   REVIVAL     121 

to  erect  healthy  postures  has  been  verified  and  confirmed  to  the 
fullest  extent,  whilst  as  to  speed  both  Drs.  Bayr  and  Scharff  testify 
to  the  greater  rapidity  with  which  Upright  Caligraphy  can  be 
produced.  "  My  best  vertically  writing  scholar  requiring  24 
"  minutes  whilst  the  best  oblique  writer  required  30  minutes  to 
"  write  off  a  certain  prescribed  poem." 

The  results  obtained  by  Miss  Seidl  municipal  teacher  at 
Vienna  are  identical  and  equally  gratifying. 

Her  letter  on  the  point  is  so  interesting  that  we  reproduce 
a  translation  of  it. 

"  My  female  pupils  whose  instruction  I  directed  from  the  first 
"  class  onwards  till  they  passed  over  into  the  City  middle  class 
"school  (i.e.  for  five  )ears)  during  the  four  school  years  from 
"  1885-6  to  1888  9  wrote  the  usual  sloping  writing  with  oblique 
"middle  position  with  a  30°  to  40°  angle  of  inclination  of  the 
"  copybook  marked  on  the  desk  before  them. 

"At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  1889-90  I  introduced 
"  some  of  my  pupils  to  Vertical  Writing  whilst  the  others  kept 
"  to  Sloping  Writing.  In  this  way  it  was  possible  to  ascertain 
"  in  the  course  of  a  year  by  personal  inspection  what  were  the 
"  essential  advantages  which  Vertical  Writing  offers  over  Sloping 
"Writing. 

"  During  the  whole  of  my  nine  years'  experience  in  the  School 
"  I  contended  with  all  conceivable  means  against  the  crooked 
"  sitting  and  oblique  vision  of  the  children  in  the  writing  lesson, 
"  but  I  must  honestly  admit  it  without  the  desired  result,  and  in 
"  the  cases  where  I  obtained  a  good  bodily  posture,  the  Cali- 
"  graphic  outcome  did  not  correspond  to  the  demands  hitherto 
"  made  by  Sloping  Writing,  that  is  to  say  it  was  too  steep  or  too 
"  near  the  Vertical. 

"  What  I  with  Sloping  \Vriting  obtained  only  in  an  imperfect 
"  way  in  spite  of  long  and  tiring  effort,  Vertical  Writing  made 
"  possible  even  in  a  few  weeks  of  its  use — viz.  a  fine  upright 
"position  of  body,  avoidance  of  the  haimful  inclination  of  the 
"head,  and  of  the  no  less  injurious  leaning  of  the  chest  on  the 
"  desk. 


122  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

"  From  the  correct  attitude  of  body  follows  also  a  greater 
"  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  writing.  The  pupils  wrote 
"  throughout — some  very  short-sighted  ones  excepted — with  the 
"  normal  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  Copybook,  several  indeed 
"  with  more  than  the  normal  distance. 

"  The  transition  from  the  Sloping  Writing,  which  had  been 
"  practised  for  four  years,  to  Vertical  Writing  involved  no  kind  of 
"  difficulty  to  the  children,  either  in  regard  to  posture  of  body  or 
"  in  technical  respects. 

"  As  regards  faultless  posture  and  beauty  of  Writing,  all  the 
"pupils  yielded  thoroughly  satisfactorily  and  indeed  often 
"  surprising  results.  In  a  short  time  most  of  the  Vertical  Writing 
"  children  made  twice  as  great  improvement  in  their  Writing,  a 
"  large  number  even  four  times  as  great. 

"  On  comparing  a  Copybook  in  which  the  Writing  is  at  first 
"  Sloping  and  afterwards  Vertical,  it  could  be  seen  with  satisfac- 
tion what  an  incomparably  more  favourable  impression  Vertical 
"  Writing  made  on  the  beholder  in  contradistinction  to  Sloping 
"  Writing. 

"  In  respect  to  rapidity  of  production  too  I  have  met  with  no 
"  difficulty  of  any  kind  as  regards  keeping  the  lines  parallel  to  the 
"edge  of  the  desk  and  maintaining  the  correct  attitude.  Indeed 
"  in  Writing  Competitions  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
"  the  question  to  the  test  of  experiment,  many  of  the  Sloping  Writing 
"  children  fell  behind  those  who  wrote  Vertically. 

"  In  respect  of  clearness  and  legibility,  and  therefore  beauty  of 
"Writing,  specimens  of  Sloping  and  Vertical  Caligraphy  and 
"rapid  Writing  show  a  very  significant  difference,  decisively  in 
"  favour  of  Vertical  Writing. 

"  Finally  it  should  be  remembered  too,  that  School  Discipline 
"finds  a  great  support  in  Vertical  Writing,  because  it  renders 
"  possible  a  better  and  easier  supervision  of  the  children  in  the 
"Writing  lesson. 

"  CAROLINE  SEIDL,  Teacher. 

"  Vienna,  November,  1890." 


HISTORY  OF  VERTICAL  WRITING  AND  its  REVIVAL   123 

Many  associations  of  teachers  as  well  as  individual  Head- 
masters have  approved  of  and  adopted  the  Vertical  Writing,  e.g. 
the  Lubeck  Association  in  May  1891,  so  that  now  in  a  very  large 
and  increasing  number  of  cities  and  centres  the  new  system  is 
making  rapid  headway.  It  can  therefore  be  safely  stated  that  in 
Switzerland,  Germany,  Austria,  France  and  Denmark  the  Veitical 
Writing  has  got  a  sure  footing  and  has  every  prospect  of  making 
good  its  claims  and  position. 

The  Royal  Bavarian  Ministry  prescribed  Experimental  adop- 
tion of  Vertical  Writing  on  a  larger  Scale  1892. 

The  Royal  Imperial  National  School  Board  of  Briim  (Moravia) 
decreed  Experimental^  Introduction  of  Vertical  Writing  in  its 
Schools  for  School  year  1891-2. 

The  Royal  Imperial  District  School  Board  Inschkau  Bohemia 
in  June  1891  decreed  the  discussion  of  Vertical  Writing  in  the 
Conferences.  Consequently  some  500  Schools  have  adopted  it. 

The  Imperial  Educational  Authority  of  Grand  Duchy  Baden 
ordered  experimental  introduction  of  Vertical  Writing  into  their 
Schools. 

The  Berlin  Teachers'  Union  requests  City  School  Commis- 
sion to  introduce  Vertical  Writing  experimentally. 

In  Troppau  (Austrian  Silesia)  the  District  Teachers'  Conference 
unanimously  resolved  to  introduce  Vertical  Writing  into  all  public 
and  City  Schools. 

The  Educational  Authorities  have  already  set  on  foot  the 
practice  of  Vertical  Writing  in  Frankfort  on  Maine. 

In  Flensburg  all  save  three  schools  write  Vertically. 

Dr.  Bayr  says  that  "over  400  Educationists  have  visited  the 
"Vertical  Writing  Classes  in  the  Institution  under  my  control; 
"enquiries  are  coming  in  from  every  side." 

The  Royal  Imperial  National  School  Board  Bohemia  (May 
1891)  declared  : 

1.  Vertical  Writing  to  be  preferable  to  Sloping  Writing  from 

the  Hygienic  Standpoint ;  and  also 

2.  Declared  itself  favourable  to  the  Experimental  introduction 

of  Vertical  Writing  into  its  Schools. 


124  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

The  twin  Resolutions  of  the  Vienna  Council  and  the  London 
Congress  are  a  very  fitting  consummation  to  the  sister  campaigns 
and  to  the  previous  deliverances  of  authoritative  Educational 
and  Medical  Corporations  to  which  reference  has  been  made 
throughout  the  pages  of  this  work.  The  appended  list  of 
Congresses,  Councils  and  Celebrities,  the  latter  distinguished  for 
their  scientific  and  educational  attainments,  who  after  patient  and 
exhaustive  research  aided  by  profuse  experiments  have  emphati- 
cally declared  in  favour  of  Upright  Penmanship  will  indicate  the 
extent  of  the  reaction  on  the  Continent. 

CONGRESSES  AND  COUNCILS. 

1.  Naturalists'  Congress,  Dantzic,  1880. 

2.  Medical  Council  of  Middle  Franconia,  1887. 

3.  International  Congress  of  Hygiene,  Vienna,  1887. 

4.  ,,  ,,  ,,          Paris,  1889. 

5.  German  Educational  Union  of  Prague,  1891. 

6.  Royal  and  Imperial  School  Board,  Bohemia,  1891. 

7.  Imperial  and  Royal  Supreme  Council  of  Hygiene,  Vienna,  1891. 

8.  Seventh     International     Congress    of    Hygiene    and    Demography, 

London,  1891. 

In  addition  to  the  above  many  other  Corporations  have  ap- 
proved of  and  recommended  Vertical  Writing  as  the  Lubeck 
Association,  previously  referred  to,  The  Paris  Commission  and  the 
Buda-Pesth  Supreme  Council  of  Education.  The  Supreme  Hun- 
garian School  Board  in  March  1891  prescribed  Experimental 
adoption  of  Vertical  Writing  by  its  Schools. 

UNIVERSITY  PROFESSORS  AND  MEDICAL  SPECIALISTS. 

1.  PROFESSOR  GLADSTONE  :  School  Board  for  London. 

2.  MR.  NOBLE  SMITH  :  Surgeon  and  Specialist,  London. 

3.  PROFESSOR    DR.    JOSEPH  HEIM  :  Chief  Physician  of  the  Theresian 

Academy,  etc.,  Vienna. 

4.  PROFESSOR  DR.  E.  FUCHS  :  Ophthalmologist  and  Specialist,  Vienna. 

5.  PROFESSOR  DR.  TOLDT  :  University  Professor  of  Anatomy,  Vienna. 

6.  PROFESSOR  DR.  PAUL  SCHUBERT:  Oculist  and   Specialist,  Nurem- 

berg. 

7.  PROFESSOR  DR.  A.  VON  REUSS  :  University  Professor,  Vienna. 

8.  PROFESSOR  DR   J.  CSAPODI  :   University  Tutor  of  Ophthalmology, 

Ystvan. 


HISTORY  OF  VERTICAL  WRITING  AND  ITS  REVIVAL     125 

9.  PROFESSOR  DR.   JULIUS   DOLLINGER  :    University    Professor    and 

Member  of  National  Council,  Hungary. 
10.  PROFESSOR  DR.  ALBERT  :  Commissioner  of  Health  and  Specialist  on 

Spinal  Curvature,  Vienna. 
n.  PROFESSOR  DR.  J.  VON  FODOR  :  Specialist  on  Hygiene,  Buda-Pesth. 

12.  PROFESSOR  DR.    ALOIS   KARPF  :  Custodian  of  Library  and  Royal 

Commission  for  Entails,  Vienna. 

13.  PROFESSOR  DR.  KOTELMANN  :  Educationist  and    Editor  of  Journal 

of  School  Regimen,  Hamburg. 

14.  PROFESSOR  DR.  AXEL  HERTEL:  Medical  Officer,  etc.,  Copenhagen. 

15.  PROFESSOR  DR.  A.  LORENZ  :  University  Professor,  Vienna. 

16.  DR.  W.  SUPPAN  :  Director  of  Academies  and   Member  of  National 

Council  of  Education,  Hungary. 

17.  DR.  MARTIUS:  Medical  Officer,  Ansbach. 

18.  DR.  GLAUMING  :  Examiner  for  the  City  Schools,  Nuremberg. 

19.  DR.  WEBER  :  Darmstadt. 

20.  DR.  LOCHNER  :  Medical  Officer,  Schwabach. 

21.  DR.   G.  MERKEL  :  Medical  Officer  and  President  of  Medical  Council, 

1879,  Nuremberg. 

22.  DR.  W.  MAYER  :  Specialist  and  Medical  Officer,  Furth. 

23.  DR.  O.  SOMMER  :  Brunswick. 

24.  DR.  A.  SCHARFF  :  Educationist,  etc.,  Plensburg. 

25.  DR.  GOUBER  :  Commissioner  of  Health,  etc.,  Vienna. 

26.  DR.  E.  HANNAK  :  Principal  of  the  Vienna  Training  College. 

27.  DR.  KARL  STEJSKAL  :  Royal  Imperial  School  Inspector,  Vienna. 

28.  DR.  FRANZ  WIEDENHOFER  :  Vienna. 

29.  DR.  E.  BAYR  :  Headmas'er  of  City  of  Vienna  Public  School. 

30.  DR.  KARL  TOMANETZ  :  Vienna. 

31.  DR.  DAIBER  :  Stuttgart. 

32.  DR.  KRUG  :  Dresden. 
&c.  &c.  &c. 

Dr.  Eulenger  declared  for  Vertical  Writing  in  1885. 

The  celebrated  oculist  Dr.  Hermann  Cohn  after  visiting  Ver- 
tical Writing  Classes  at  Vienna  has  declared  for  the  Upright 
System  (1892). 

INSPECTORS,  ETC. 

ALOIS  FELLNER  :  Imperial  and  Royal  Inspector,  Vienna. 
LAURENZ  MAYER  :  Imperial  and  Royal  Inspector,  Vienna. 
FRANZ  KLIMA  :  Imperial  and  Roynl  Inspector,  Littan,  Moravia. 
L.  WIESMANN  :  Secondary  Teacher,  Winterthur. 
FRANCIS  WAAS  :  Member  of  School  Board,  Vienna. 

NOTE  :  Since  the  passage  on  p.  119  was  first  written,  a  change 
has  come  over  the  spirit  of  the  scene,  and  many  signs  of  vitality 
and  growing  interest  have  exhibited  themselves  both  amongst 


126  MANUAL  OF    HANDWRITING 

teachers,  the  Press,  and  the  Education  Department.  The  last- 
named  has  made  a  material  advance,  and  from  being  antagonistic 
have  now  declared  that  "The  revisors  of  Handwriting  for  the 
"  Education  Department "  (Whitehall)  "  will  place  Vertical  writing 
"  on  the  same  footing  with  other  styles  of  writing."  Through  many 
of  its  representatives  (H.M.  Inspectors)  the  Department  speaks  still 
more  decisively  in  favour  of  Upright  Penmanship.  We  quote 
from  the  Blue  Books  of  1890,  1891,  and  1892  :  "Vertical  Writing 
"appears  to  be  most  easily  taught,  and  to  be  the  best  for  the  right 
"physical  conditions  of  the  eyesight  and  the  spine"  (Rev.  T.  W. 
Sharpe,  M.A.,  Senior  Chief  Inspector). 

"Many  schools  are  now  adopting  the  Vertical  style  of  writing. 
"  It  is  said  to  be  easily  acquired,  and  to  enable  the  children  to 
"adopt  a  more  upright  and -therefore  more  healthy  posture  while 
"writing.  It  has  also  the  merit  of  clearness  and  legibility,  so 
"that  I  have  no  doubt  it  will  spread"  (Rev.  C.  F.  Johnstone, 
Chief  Inspector). 

"A  growing  tendency  to  an  Upright  rather  than  a  sloping 
"style"  (R.  Ogilvie,  Esq.,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Chief  Inspector). 

"  Handwriting  has  improved,  especially  in  those  schools  in 
"which  the  Upright  style  of  writing  has  been  adopted"  (F.  B. 
de  Sausmarez,  Esq.,  H.M.I.). 

Another  Chief  Inspector  says  "The  writing  was  about  the 
"  best  I  have  seen.  The  boys  are  taught'  the  Upright  or  Jackson's 
"  Style." 

Then  finally  the  attitude  of  the  Press  has  entirely  changed ; 
from  being  cynical,  then  patronising,  it  has  become  appreciative 
and  sometimes  enthusiastic.  There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  all 
classes  of  the  community  are  recognising  the  claims  of  Upright 
Penmanship  more  widely  every  day,  and  that  the  lethargy  of  the 
past  is  quickly  disappearing  and  giving  way  to  an  interest  which 
occasionally  rises  to  excitement. 


127 


CHAPTER  XI 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    WITH    SHORT    DESCRIPTIVE   NOTICES 

THE  following  list  may  be  accepted  as  fairly  representing  the 
literature  on  the  subject  of  Penmanship  and  Handwriting  pub- 
lished during  the  present  century,  so  far  as  it  affects  the  question 
of  Education.  Many  small  brochures  are  omitted  as  their  inser- 
tion could  serve  no  good  purpose.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
majority  of  these  publications  are  merely  collections  of  specimens 
of  the  Engraver's  skill,  and  also  of  the  writer's  ingenuity  as  indicated 
in  most  intricate  and  beautiful  designs  in  flourishing  and  orna- 
mental lettering,  and  that  the  remainder  are  more  or  less  books  of 
instructions,  hints  or  directions  how  to  write  or  how  to  become  a 
good  writer,  one  or  two  of  these  containing  suggestions  on  how 
to  teach  the  art.  Few  could  imagine  the  anomalies  and  con- 
tradictions with  which  these  manuals  abound  when  compared  with 
each  other,  in  regard  to  every  point  connected  with  the  science 
and  art  of  penmanship.  A  somewhat  entertaining  diversity  of 
opinion  e.g.  on  the  position  of  the  body  may  be  referred  to  where 
elbows  must  be  close  in  to  side  and  not  touching  the  side; 
where  the  body  must  be  absolutely  erect  but  at  the  same  time 
bending  forward  :  and  where  it  must  be  able  to  present  the  right 
side  the  left  side  and  the  Chest  front  all  simultaneously  to  the 
front  edge  of  the  desk.  Rather  a  difficult  feat  for  an  ordinary 
individual  we  imagine  ! 

748  "  The  Art  of  Writing  "  illustrated  with  eight  copper  plates.  John  New- 
bury,  London.  i6mo.  To  which  is  added  a  collection  of  letters  and 
directions  for  addressing  persons  of  distinction,  etc.,  with  some  six 
pages  of  "  General  Instructions  for  young  Practitioners  in  the  art  of 
Penmanship." 


128  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

*795  "  The  Penman's  Repository."  Win.  Milns.  London.  4to.  36  plates. 
Containing  70  correct  alphabets,  a  valuable  selection  of  flourishes,  and 
a  variety  of  new  designs. 

iSoi    *'The  Select  Penman."     London.     8vo.      "Consisting  of  copious  ex 
tracts  from  all  the  most  excellent  performances  now  in  esteem.    Being 
alphabets,  copies,  sentences,  etc.,  in  all  the  Hands  carefully  digested 
and  beautifully  engraved  on  twenty  copper  plates  by  the  best  hands." 

1803  "  The  Origin  and  Progress  of  Writing."     Th.  Astle.      London.      Folio. 

A  most  admirable  production,  illustrated  with  valuable  and  numerous 
plates.  The  talented  author  has  done  his  work  well,  and  has  written 
a  book  which  for  thoroughness,  detail,  information  and  originality  is 
a  standard  of  reference  and  a  classic  on  the  subject. 

1804  "The  Art   of  Reading,   Writing,    etc."      London.     8vo.      A    general 

handbook  of  44  pages  containing  miscellaneous  hints  on  "  Writing  a 
free  and  expeditious  hand  which  may  be  attained  in  a  few  days."  (!) 
Some  plates  of  headlines  are  inserted. 

1805  "  Geographical  and  Commercial  Copies."    H.  Genery.     London".     8vo. 

Twenty -six  plates  of  Copies  (chiefly  plain)  in  various  sizes  of  writing, 
with  some  ornamental  alphabets. 

1809  "  New  Universal  Penman. "  Butterworth.  Edinburgh.  Folio.  Thirty- 
two  large  plates  of  Capitals,  Designs,  Plain  and  Ornamental  Lettering, 
Writing  Copies,  and  Flourishings. 

iSio  "The  Desideratum  of  Penmanship."  G.  C.  Rapier.  Leeds.  I2mo. 
"The  true  principles  by  which  to  teach  the  art."  Fourteen  plates  of 
letters  (small  and  capitals)  and  headlines  with  seven  pages  of  text 
supplying  instructions  as  to  position,  etc. 

1814  "Writing   on  an   Improved   Plan."      London.      8vo.     Four  pages  of 

directions  and  six  plates  of  exercises. 

1815  "Superior,  Free,  Elegant,  and  Swift  Writing."    G.  B.  King*.     London. 

In  six  lessons  to  which  is  added  a  System  (entirely  new)  for  writing 

exercises.     Six  piges  of  text  and  six  plates  of  specimens. 
1817  "The  Preparative  Writing  Book."    J.Dobbin.    London.    410.     Twelve 

plates  of  Headlines  with   lines  ruled   for  writing.     (A  copy  book  of 

12  pages.) 
1835  "  Autographs  "  of  Celebrated  Personages.    J.  Netherclift.    London.   Fol. 

Several  plates  of  grouped  autographs. 

1839  "  Plain  and  Ornamental  Penmanship."    F.  D.  Sutcliffe  Warley.     Man- 

chester. Fol.  Five  large  plates  of  designs  in  plain  and  ornamental 
Penmanship. 

1840  "  Flowers  of  Penmanship."     W.    Paton.     London.     Folio.     Fourteen 

plates  illustrative  of  Ornamental  Penmanship  and  Lettering  with 
portrait  of  Author.  No  text  save  preface. 

1842  "Penmanship."  H.B.Foster.  Boston,  U.S.  I2mo.  88  pp.  Fifty- 
two  pages  of  instructions  for  positions,  analysis  of  letters,  formation  of 
Capitals,  etc.,  with  thirty-six  pages  of  headlines  in  red  for  tracing 
over. 

1844  "  Beauties   of  Writing."     T.    Tomkins.      London.       Fol.     Forty-one 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   WITH   SHORT   DESCRIPTIVE   NOTICES     129 

plates   of    plain   and    ornamental    writing,     Ornamental    Lettering, 

Flourishing  and  intricate  designs. 
1849  "A  collection  of  one  hundred  letters."     J.  Netherclift.     London.     Fol. 

This  work  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  variety  in  style  of  tne 

writing. 
1853   "  The  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Writing."     H.  N.  Humphreys. 

London.     4to.  176  pp.      Illustrated   by  28  plates  and    29  woodcuts. 

The  origin  of  Writing  and  its  history  traced   through   the  Mexican, 

Chinese,    Egyptian,    Assyrian,    Babylonic  and    Per  ian   (Cuneiform), 

Phoenician,  Hebrew,  Greek  and   Roman  or  Latin,   to  the  Modern 

National  Styles  of  Writing  in  Europe,  concluding  with  an  account  of 

the  writing  material  of  all  ages. 
1855  "Ornamental    Penmanship."      G.    J.    Becker.       Philadelphia.       8vo. 

Thirty-three     plates    of    plain    and    Ornamental    type    and    Script 

Alphabets. 
1858  "  Writing  without  a  Master."     London.     8vo.     A  preface,  four  pages 

of  remarks  on  positions,  six  plates  of  Headlines  in   Smallhand  (with 

notes)  and  sixteen  blank  leaves   for  exercise   are   supplied    in    this 

manual. 

1858  "Handbook  of  Autographs."     F.  G.  Netherclift.     London.     8vo.     A 

most  interesting  collection  of  Autographs. 

1859  "  The  Penman's  Manual."     New  York.     36  pp.     A  practical  Manual 

on  Business  Handwriting,  with  rules,  numerous  illustrations  and  two 
plates. 

1860  "The  Art  of  Writing."     J.  A.  Cooper.    London.     8vo.     Twenty  plates 

of  small  hand  graduated  copies,  preceded  by  an  essay  on  the  Art  of 
writing  and  5  pages  of  general  directions. 

1862  "Ornamental  Writing."  H  irdy.  London.  8vo.  Six  plates  of 
Alphabets,  ornamental  lettering,  and  Script. 

1862  "  The  Commercial  Penman."  E.  A.  Porteus.  London.  410.  A  title 
page,  twenty-four  plates  of  Commercial  letters,  and  24  blank  leaves 
for  exercise. 

1862  "  Designs  for  Illuminated  and  Ornamental  Letters.'"'  E.  A.  Porteus. 
London.  i6mo.  Four  plates  of  designs  for  illuminated  and  orna- 
mental lettering.  No  text. 

1866  "Autograph  Album."  J.  Philips.  London.  4to.  This  is  a  very 
valuable  selection. 

1873  "  The  Art  of  Rapid  Writing."     W.  Stokes.     London. 

l%75  "Judging  Handwriting."  E.  Lumley.  London.  i6mo.  176  pp.  The 
art  of  judging  the  character  of  individuals  from  their  Handwriting  and 
Style  with  35  plates  containing  120  specimens  of  writing. 

1877  "  Compendium  of  Practical  Penmanship."  Daniel  T.  Ames.  New 
York.  410.  Forty-eight  beautiful  plates  of  (twenty-four)  plain  and 
ornamental  alphabets,  with  most  intricate  designs  in  flourishing  and 
Ornamental  Penmanship. 

1879  "  The  Philosophy  of  Handwriting."  Don  Felix  de  Salamanca.  London. 
8vo.  An  introduction  on  Writing  in  general  followed  by  135  auto- 
graphs of  various  celebrities  with  notes  on  each. 

K 


I3O  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

1880  "  Character  indicated  in  Handwriting."  Baughan.  London.  8vo. 
One  hundred  Autographs  with  notes  and  explanations. 

1880  "  Practical  Penmanship,"  or  how  to  acquire  a  good  Handwriting.  ^  W. 
D.  Prior.  London.  8vo.  Numerous  illustrations,  examples,  and 
practices.  Hints  on  Position  and  Desk  with  a  few  remarks  on  Orna- 
mental Writing. 

1882  "  Penmanship. ?>  C.  H.  Mitchell.  London.  8vo.  38  pp.  Introduc- 
tion ;  Attitude  ;  Holding  the  Pen  ;  Appendices  A  to  E  (plates  of 
Models). 

1886  "Guide  to  Beautiful  Handwriting."     J.  Barter.     London.     8vo.  48pp. 

A  series  of  copies  in  plain  and  ornamental  writing,  each  copy  being 
preceded  by  directions,  concluding  with  some  specimens  of  flou'ishing. 

1887  "A  Manual  of  Handwriting."     F.  Betteridge.      Bradford.     410.  55pp. 

"  prepared  for  Junior  teachers."  A  course  of  19  lessons  with  notes  ; 
also  remarks  on  Desks,  Postures,  German  Time-writing  and  Capitals. 
Copiously  illustrated. 

1887  "According  to  Cocker."     The  progress  of  Penmanship  from  the  earliest 

times,  with  upwards  of  twenty  illustrative  examples  from  "  Penna 
Volans,"  and  other  old  works  on  the  subject.  By  W.  Anderson 
Smith.  There  are  nearly  30  pages  of  text  giving  the  barest  outline 
of  the  progress  of  Penmanship,  and  six  of  those  30  pages  deal  exclu- 
sively with  the  incidents  of  Cocker's  career. 

1888  "Writing  and  How  to  Teach  it."     J.  C.  Sharp,  M.A.     London.     8vo. 

One  hundred  short  lessons  for  the  guidance  of  teachers  ;  diagrams,  of 
copies  and  errors,  accompany  each  lesson. 

1888  "Writing   Simplified."      Freeman.       London.     8vo.      Thirty  pages  of 

plates  and  some  text  in  which  a  new  longhand  alphabet  is  given,  also 
a  style  of  shorthand  with  observations  on  parallel  symbols  of  Holy 
Writ. 

1889  "Rapid  Writer,  Own  Instructor."     D.  Dixon.     Preston.     8vo.  40  pp. 

A  collection  of  Alphabets,  Headlines  and  Specimens  of  flourishing, 
with  general  hints  and  instructions. 

1889  "  Prize  Specimens  of  Handwriting."  London.  I2mo.  Being  the 
four  £5  prize  specimens  and  others  (thirty-two  in  all)  gaining  special 
distinction  in  the  Competition  offered  by  "Tit  Bits."  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  both  (and  the  only)  ladies  gaining  the  £'5  prizes  were 
Vertical  Writers. 

1891  "  Art  of  Handwriting  and  how  it  should  be  taught. "  Hughes,  London. 
A  collection  of  some  14  full-page  engravings,  and  other  diagrams,  with 
about  32  pages  of  text.  "Specially  prepared  for  the  use  of  pupi) 
teachers  and  students  in  training  colleges." 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX   I 

CONTRASTS  or  specimens  of  the  two  styles  of  caligraphy  written  (as 
in  Fig.  51)  by  the  same  persons  ;  save  in  Figures  52  and  61. 


APPENDIX  1 


133 


.2        * 


134 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


APPENDIX 


'35 


d  d  d  6 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


APPENDIX  I 


137 


138 


MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


APPENDIX  I 


139 


140 


MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 


142  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 


APPENDIX    II 

"  ON  Perpendicular  Writing  in  Schools  "  A  Lecture  delivered  by  Dr. 
Paul  Schubert,  on  the  23rd  Oct  :  1890  before  the  Society  of  Public 
Hygiene  at  Nuremberg. 

The  proposal  to  replace  the  customary  oblique  writing  by  perpen- 
dicular characters  arose  from  the  endeavour  to  obtain  an  upright 
healthy  writing  posture  in  school-children,  an  object  which  hitherto, 
though  means  of  every  kind  were  tried,  had  never  been  attained. 
Every  teacher  knows  how  much  patience  and  lung-power  the  constant 
injunctions  to  sit  straight  demand,  how  much  time  is  thereby  taken 
away  from  the  proper  tasks  of  instruction,  and  how  nevertheless  after 
a  short  period  the  children  always  sink  back  again  into  those  bodily 
distortions  with  which  we  are  all  so  familiar,  as  if  a  strong  magnet 
were  dragging  down  their  heads  towards  the  left  side  of  the  copy-book. 

Complaints  about  this  are  of  very  ancient  date  and  are  repeated  in 
almost  every  treatise  on  school  hygiene.  The  worst  of  it  is  that  every 
child  very  soon  gets  accustomed  to  his  own  peculiar  cramped  way  of 
sitting,  which  he  always  resumes  during  the  many  hundred  writing 
lessons  of  his  school-life,  so  that  always  the  same  organs  are  again 
burdened  and  the  same  functions  hindered.  Everyone  thinks  chiefly 
of  the  dangers  of  short-sight  and  crooked  growth  ;  scarcely  less  pre- 
judicial is  the  hindrance  to  full  respiration  and  the  impeding  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  organs  of  the  lower  body,  with  all  their 
consequences,  Into  the  details  of  which  we  cannot  enter  here. 

To  two  medical  authors,  Ellinger  and  Gross,  belongs  the  glory  of 
having  explicitly  pointed  out  in  numerous  publications,  about  1874  5, 
that  the  cause  of  the  bad  posture  of  children  while  writing  ought  not  to 
be  looked  for  as  hitherto  in  external  matters,  nor  should  the  blame  be 
laid  on  the  teacher,  but  that  the  ultimate  reason  for  oblique  sitting  lay 
rather  in  the  way  of  writing  itself  ;  this  latter  would  have  to  be  entirely 
revolutionised,  and  in  particular  a  copy-book  pushed  sideways  towards 
the  right  must  not  be  tolerated  in  the  case  of  any  child  ;  for  herein 
lay  the  root  of  the  worst  distortions  of  eye,  head,  and  trunk.  In  the 
positive  part  of  their  labours,  however,  Ellinger  and  Gross  were 
neither  in  agreement  with  one  another,  nor  did  their  views  coincide 
with  what  we  to-day  believe  should  be  pronounced  the  solution  of  the 
question. 

At  first  Ellinger  demanded  oblique  writing  on  a  copy-book  lying 
obliquely  before  the  middle  of  the  body  ;  but  in  the  year  1885  ne 
joined  the  Middle  Franconia  Reform  Movement  and  professed  the 


APPENDIX    II  143 

conviction  that  Vertical  Writing  in  straight  middle  position  is  the 
only  correct  one. 

Gross  on  the  other  hand  desired  perpendicular  writing,  but, 
strangely  enough,  at  the  same  time  a  slightly  oblique  position  of  the 
copy-book.  This  is,  as  I  hope  to  make  clear  further  on,  an  internal 
contradiction  which  the  first  practical  experiments  in  writing  must 
have  rendered  obvious.  Nevertheless  it  was  the  very  fresh  and  stir- 
ring pamphlet  of  Gross  that  directed  the  attention  of  a  wide  circle  to 
the  need  of  a  writing-reform,  and  thereby  gave  the  impulse  to  all  sub- 
sequent efforts.  Thus  it  came  about  that  Dr.  Martins,  District 
Medical  Adviser,  discussed  the  proposals  of  Gross  in  the  Medical 
District  Union  at  Ansbach,  and  carried  a  motion  in  the  Middle 
Franconia  Medical  Council,  to  the  effect  that  the  Government  should, 
through  the  official  organs,  have  data  collected  as  to  the  possible 
dangers  of  oblique  writing.  Simultaneously  a  critique  by  Mr. 
Methsieder,  District  School  Inspector,  was  produced,  which  strongly 
advocated  perpendicular  writing.  At  the  same  sitting  of  the  Medical 
Council  in  1879,  the  president  Dr.  Merkel,  Medical  Adviser,  also 
declared  very  decidedly  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing,  which  he  him- 
self had  been  exclusively  using  for  many  years. 

Without  going  into  details  on  the  labours  and  counter-currents  of 
the  next  ten  years,  I  will  now  try  to  explain  our  present  knowledge  of 
the  physiology  of  writing,  and,  in  connection  therewith,  give  an  account 
of  the  results  of  the  experiments  with  perpendicular  writing  in  separate 
school-classes  in  Central  Franconia,  Flensburg  and  Vienna.  In  the 
question  before  us  the  direction  of  the  clown-stroke  as  regards  the 
line  of  writing  is  the  principal  point  ;  everything  else  depends  on  this. 
Downstrokes  are  formed  by  simple  bending  of  the  three  writing- 
fingers,  with  the  assistance  at  the  same  time  of  a  slight  bending  at  the 
wrist.  In  the  upstroke  the  fingers  by  extension  return  again  to  their 
original  position,  while  simultaneously  the  point  of  the  pen  is,  by 
movement  of  hand  or  arm,  pushed  away  a  little  towards  the  right. 
The  first  consideration,  then,  that  forces  itself  upon  us  is  :  What 
direction  of  down-stroke  is  unconstrained  and  natural,  and  best  suits 
the  organs  concerned  in  writing  ? 

The  following  experiment  will  show. 

Assume  a  straight  symmetrical  posture  of  body,  lay  a  sheet  of 
paper  in  the  mMdle  before  you  and  place  your  hand  ready  for  writing 
on  it,  leaving  ihe  hand  however  still  in  its  position  of  rest  withcut  any 
sort  of  muscuiar  tension.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  palm  of  the  hand  is 
then  not  turned  downwards  towards  the  paper,  as  many  ancient  and 
modern  writing-rules  wrongly  require,  but  that  it  stands  perpendicular 
to  the  surface  of  the  desk,  and  the  whole  hand  lies  exactly  in  the 


144  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

direction  of  the  extended  lower  arm.  The  plane  formed  by  the  fore- 
finger and  thuiiib  has  a  very  slight  inclination  to  the  left,  the  fourth 
and  fifth  fingers  are  moderately  bent,  and  the  hand  rests  on  the  nail- 
joint  of  the  latter. 

This  posture  of  hand  secures  to  the  fingers  that  hold  the  pen  the 
greatest  freedom  of  movement  for  up-  and  down-strokes.  If  now  you 
close  your  eyes  and,  without  turning  or  twisting  the  hand,  blindly 
make  a  few  movements  and  extensions  of  the  three  fingers  that  hold 
the  pen,  the  strokes  produced  will  be  directed  pretty  exactly  towards 
the  middle  of  the  body  and  at  the  same  time  stand  perpendicular  to 
the  edge  of  the  desk,  supposing  that  the  point  of  the  writing  pen  is 
exactly  in  the  middle,  in  front  of  the  writer.  The  direction  of  these 
strokes,  with  regard  both  to  the  edge  of  the  desk  and  to  the  breast, 
will  of  course  remain  exactly  the  same,  if,  other  conditions  being  kept 
unchanged,  the  paper  lies  at  one  time  oblique,  at  another  straight 
before  the  middle  of  the  body.  Only  their  position  relative  to  the 
edges  of  the  sheet  and  to  the  line  will  change.  They  will  stand  per- 
pendicular to  the  latter  if  the  sheet  lies  straight,  they  will  stand 
obliquely  on  it  if  the  sheet  is  placed  obliquely.  If,  however,  you  push 
the  paper  and  the  blindly  writing  hand  away  towards  the  right,  and 
are  careful  that  in  this  position  the,  action  described  above  is  main- 
tained and  the  writing-motion  completed  without  constraint  by  the 
bending  and  extension  of  the  three  fingers,  then  the  down-strokes 
though  directed  as  before  towards  the  middle  of  the  writer,  will  at  the 
same  time  stand  obliquely  to  the  edge  of  the  desk.  Their  inclination 
to  the  line  will  obviously  here  too  be  entirely  dependent  on  the  turn- 
ing of  the  paper. 

From  this  preliminary  experiment  the  rule  seems  to  follow  that  in 
writing,  as  well  in  middle  position  as  in  right  position  of  the  copy- 
book — left  positions  do  not  conceivably  occur  in  right-handed  writing — , 
it  is  always  those  down-strokes  which  are  directed  towards  the  breast  of 
the  writer  that  flow  most  easily  from  the  pen.  At  the  same  time  the 
possibility  of  producing  other  directions  of  the  down-strokes  by 
violent  twistings  of  the  hand  is  not  to  be  denied,  but,  as  the  experi- 
ments described  above  seem  to  teach  us,  only  such  down-strokes  as 
fall  on  the  line  of  connection  between  pen-point  and  breast-bone 
are  executed  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  hand-motion  and 
without  constraint. 

Let  us  now  see  whether  these  personal  observations  are  confirmed 
when  we  let  others  write,  without  influencing  them  at  all,  in  any 
position  of  body  and  copy-book  they  please.  In  boys  from  eight  to 
twelve  years  of  age  I  measured  in  1,586  cases  the  direction  of  the 
down-strokes  in  regard  to  the  body,  and  found  that  with  those  who 


APPENDIX   IT  145 

had  their  copy-book  p'accd  in  the  middle  before  them  only  slight 
deviations  towards  the  right  took  place,  amounting  to  10°,  in  rare 
cases  to  15°,  and  on  the  other  hand  also  quite  inconsiderable  devia- 
tions towards  the  left,  amounting  to  5°,  but  that  the  average  direction 
was  with  tolerable  exactness  straight  towards  the  middle  of  the 
body. 

This  rule  was  found  to  be  still  more  absolute  in  the  case  of  those 
children  who  in  writing  had  pushed  their  copy-book  strongly  towards 
the  right  ;  here  almost  in  all  cases  the  down-stroke  coincided  with  a 
line  drawn  towards  the  breast.  If  the  above  observation  really  attains 
the  importance  of  embodying  a  regular  relation,  then  this  must  declare 
itself  in  the  direction  of  the  different  down-strokes  of  every  long  line. 
Since  in  the  course  of  such  a  line  the  position  of  the  pen-point  moves 
considerably  towards  the  right,  it  is  to  be  expected,  presupposing  the 
correctness  of  that  observation,  that  the  first  and  last  down-strokes 
are  not  parallel  but  converge  downwards,  that  is,  towards  the  breast 
of  the  writer.  Indeed,  I  was  able  to  demonstrate  such  a  relation  in 
pupils'  handwritings  in  a  >out  90  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  That  it  was 
not  always  to  be  found  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  care  taken  to 
give  the  down-strokes  the  same  direction.  It  would  now  be  in  place 
to  explain  the  regularity  which  has  been  discovered  in  the  direction 
of  the  down-stroke  from  the  anatomy  and  capability  of  movement  of 
the  writing-joints, — a  task  to  whose  solution  Dr.  William  Mayer  of 
Fiirth  has  devoted  himself. 

The  danger  of  remaining  incomprehensible  to  persons  who  are  not 
medical  men,  however,  makes  me  renounce  this  attempt.  From  the 
law  (which  has  since  been  recognised  by  all  writers  on  the  Vertical 
Style)  that  in  unconstrained  writing  all  down-strokes  are  directed 
towards  the  breast-bone,  the  relations  which  prevail  between  the 
direction  of  the  writing  and  the  different  positions  of  the  copy-book 
follow  quite  naturally.  If  the  copy-book  during  writing  is  before  the 
middle  of  the  body,  we  have  to  distinguish  whether  it  lies  straight,  so 
that  its  edges  are  directed  parallel  to  those  of  the  desk,  or  the  side 
edges  of  the  copy-book  run  up  obliquely  from  left  to  right.  The 
former  is  called  the  straight  middle  position,  in  which  only  and  solely 
perpendicular  strokes  can  be  produced  :  the  latter,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  known  as  oblique  middle  position,  in  which  the  downstrokes 
must  stand  obliquely  as  regards  the  line  at  about  the  same  angle  as 
that  which  the  copy-book  edges  form  with  the  corresponding  edges  of 
the  desk. 

Further  it  is  quite  evident  that  if  the  copy-book  lies  to  the  right, 
whether  it  be  straight  or  turned  in  the  way  just  explained,  the  down- 
strokes  must  stand  obliquely  on  the  line.  All  right-posit  ions 

I 


146  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

therefore,  are  inseparably  connected  with  sloping  writing".  At  this 
point  let  us  once  more  sum  up  :  in  straight  middle  position  only 
Vertical  Writing  can  be  written,  and,  vice  versa,  Vertical  Writing  only 
in  straight  middle  position.  Sloping  writing,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be 
produced  equally  well  in  oblique  middle  position  and  in  straight  and 
oblique  right  position.  It  will  now  have  to  be  examined  which  of 
these  positions  of  the  copy-book  is  hygienically  the  best,  and  along 
with  this  decision  judgment  will  also  be  passed  as  to  whether  the 
sloping  writing,  hitherto  customary,  is  without  injury  for  the  school- 
child,  or  whether  it  is  in  this  respect  inferior  to  Vertical  Writing.  At 
the  outset,  then,  both  the  right  positions  must  be  struck  out  of  the 
competition  ;  they  are,  according  to  the  unanimous  verdict  of  all 
experts,  inseparably  connected  with  dangers  to  the  bodily  develop- 
ment of  the  child,  and  ought  as  soon  as  possible  to  be  most  strictly 
forbidden  in  our  schools. 

The  Spinal  Column  suffers  in  this  position  of  the  copy-book  a 
twist  to  the  right  and  at  the  same  time  an  arched  bend  towards  the 
left,  and  with  many  children  there  is  developed,  as  William  Meyer 
and  Schenk  have  proved,  from  this  faulty  way  of  sitting  at  the 
writing,  permanent  spinal  curvatures  with  elevation  of  the  left 
shoulder.  Further,  with  this  posture  the  two  eyes  approach  unduly 
near  the  writing,  so  that  the  production  of  short-sight  is  favoured. 
The  right  eye  in  particular  is  injured  by  greater  nearness  to  the 
writing,  stronger  extension  of  the  external  muscles  and  increased 
internal  strain  (see  Fig.  25,  p.  87).  It  was  against  the  obvious  incon- 
veniences inseparably  connected  with  every  right-position  that  Ellinger 
and  Gross  opened  the  fight,  and  since  then  in  all  the  strife  of  opinions 
not  one  even  among  ihe  warmest  friends  of  Sloping  Writing  has  been 
found  capable  of  defending  this  way  of  writing. 

The  right  position  having  thus  disappeared,  as  completely  imprac- 
ticable, from  the  sphere  of  our  further  deliberations, — it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  in  the  not  far  distant  future  it  will  finally  disappear  from  school 
teaching  also, — we  shall  now  have  to  occupy  ourselves  in  greater  detail 
with  estimating  the  rival  merits  of  the  two  ways  of  writing  still  left, 
Perpendicular  Writing  in  straight  middle  position  and  Sloping  Writing 
in  oblique  middle  position.  That  in  both  positions  of  the  copy-book  the 
downstrokes  are  directed  towards  the  middle  of  the  breast  and  stand 
perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the  desk  has  already  been  proved  ;  the 
difference  therefore  lies  only  in  the  way  the  paper  is  placed  under  the 
writing-hand.  Since  in  straight  middle  position  the  edges  of  the  copy- 
book are  parallel  to  those  of  the  desk,  the  down-strokes  will  come  to 
stand  perpendicularly  in  the  copy-book  too  ;  if  the  page  is  twisted, 
then  the  down-strokes,  whose  direction  is  not  twisted,  receive  an 


APPENDIX   II  147 

oblique  position  as  regards  the  lower  edge  of  the  copy-book  and  the 
line. 

So  it  is  on  the  course  of  the  lines  that  the  whole  difference  (which, 
however,  is  not  to  be  underestimated)  of  the  two  positions  of  the  copy- 
book rests,  and  a  contest  has  for  years  been  going  on  between  the 
defenders  and  opponents  of  Sloping  Writing  with  regard  to  the  in- 
fluence which  the  direction  of  the  line  exercises  on  the  bodily  posture 
of  children. 

Let  us  first  of  all  consider  the  action  of  the  eye  in  this  respect. 
Berlin  and  Rembold  maintained  that  for  our  organ  of  sight  it  was  of 
no  importance  whether  the  line  ran  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  desk, 
or  rose  obliquely  up  from  left  to  right  ;  for  though  the  eye  in  the 
course  of  the  writing  followed  each  single  down-stroke,  yet  it  did  not 
follow  the  line.  It  was  an  easy  matter  to  prove  the  contrary.  In 
children  at  the  age  of  from  8-12  years  I  found  the  movement  of  the 
eyes  in  the  course  of  a  line  to  amount  on  the  average  to  13°,  and 
movement  was  hardly  ever  absent. 

This  oblique  movement  of  the  eyes  up  from  left  to  right,  however 
simple  it  may  seem  to  the  layman,  is— for  ophthalmological  reasons 
which  cannot  be  stated  in  detail  here,  but  are  estimated  at  their  full 
value  by  all  specialists  by  no  means  a  matter  of  indifference  for  the 
eye  in  the  long  run,  having  as  its  result  a  left  inclination  of  the  head 
with  deepening  of  the  position  of  the  left  eye.  This  was  very  plainly 
evident  in  measurements  of  the  posture  of  the  head  assumed  by  children 
writing  in  oblique  middle  position  ;  the  left  inclination  of  the  head 
amounted,  in  the  preponderating  majority,  to  about  10°,  sometimes 
even  to  from  20°  to  30°  ;  in  straight  middle  position  of  the  copy-book 
the  posture  was  far  better  ;  William  Mayer,  who  repeated  my 
measurements  on  the  school  children  of  Fiirth,  has  also  confirmed  this 
difference. 

If  now  on  the  one  side  we  have  reason,  with  respect  to  the  eye,  to 
prefer  straight  middle  position  and  Vertical  Writing,  on  the  other  it 
was  urged  by  the  friends  of  Sloping  Writing,  that  the  obliquely  rising 
line  in  oblique  middle  position  was  more  comfortable  for  the  hand  to 
write  than  the  horizontal  one  running  parallel  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
desk.  The  former  could  be  written  by  simple  turning  of  the  arm 
round  its  point  of  support  on  the  edge  of  the  desk,  whereas  the  latter 
required  a  repeated  pushing  of  the  arm  towards  the  right  in  the  course 
of  every  line.  This  offended— so  Berlin  in  particular  declared 
against  the  laws  of  movement  of  the  hand,  and  on  that  ground  Per- 
pendicular Writing  with  its  direction  of  the  line  was  "unphysiological," 
that  is,  contrary  to  nature. 

Let  us  briefly  examine  these  views.     A  more  frequent  movement 

L2 


148  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

of  the  arm  is  indeed  requisite  in  Vertical  Writing,  but  nothing  un- 
physiological  can  be  discovered  in  this  fact.  Otherwise  we  should 
have  to  suppose  that  in  all  the  Middle  Ages,  which,  as  is  well  known, 
knew  only  perpendicular  characters,  or  characters  inclined  at  the  most 
10°  to  15°  to  the  right,  violence  was  done  to  the  wrist  in  the  writing  of 
every  line  — for  what  reason  no  one  understands —  and  yet  throughout 
those  many  centuries  not  a  single  person  among  millions  of  writers 
observed  that  this  way  of  writing  was  uncomfortable,  nay  unnatural,  and 
that  the  laws  of  movement  of  the  hand  demanded  Sloping  Writing  with 
oblique  direction  of  the  line.  In  all  the  antique  representations  hitherto 
accessible  to  me  of  monks,  women,  and  children  in  the  act  of  writing 
the  straight  middle-position  is  without  exception  to  be  seen  (see  Figs.  I 
and  2).  To  venture  to  describe  such  time-honoured  customs  as  contrary 
to  nature  is  really  to  depreciate  the  inventive  faculty  of  our  ancestors. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  denied  that  in  very  quick 
writing,  to  which  particular  callings  at  the  piesent  day  see  themselves 
forced,  Sloping  Writing  with  oblique  position  of  the  paper  is  requisite  ; 
indeed  1  even  think  that  in  the  growing  need  for  rapidity  of  writing 
lies  the  cause  of  the  predominance  which  within  the  last  two  centuries 
Sloping  Writing  has  been  gradually  acquiring.  The  excessive  right- 
inclination  of  the  down-strokes,  amounting  to  45°,  which  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  clearness  and  legibility  of  our  handwritings  has  only  in 
recent  times  become  customary,  must  in  any  case  be  described  as  an 
error  which  nothing  justified,  not  even  haste  and  hurry.  To  attain  the 
objects  of  quick  writing  a  slightly  oblique  position  of  about  20°  would 
abundantly  suffice.  But  it  seems  to  me  in  no  way  justifiable  to  use  the 
oblique  style  in  elementary  teaching ;  it  offers  no  advantage  at  all  except 
in  writing  at  headlong  speed,  and  is  therefore  entirely  unnecessary  for 
the  great  majority  of  children  not  only  at  school  but  also  throughout 
life.  Moderately  rapid  writing,  as  school  experiments  to  be  mentioned 
later  have  shown,  is  quite  compatible  with  perpendicular  characters 
(see  p.  122,  also  p.  153). 

If  sloping  writing  with  oblique  middle-position  of  the  copy-book 
involved  slight  left-inclination  of  the  head  only,  then  a  serious  objec- 
tion could  scarcely  be  raised  against  this  way  of  writing  ;  every  side- 
inclination  of  the  head,  however,  has  as  its  result,  on  statistical  grounds, 
a  compensatory  twist  of  the  spinal  column,  whose  far  reaching  effect 
cannot  be  underestimated  if  we  take  into  account  the  many  hours 
which  in  the  course  of  the  whole  school-time  are  spent  in  writing. 
The  principal  danger  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  are  no  means  of  keep- 
ing children  who  write  the  sloping  style  fixed  in  middle  position  with 
moderately  oblique  position  of  the  copy-book  ;  even  under  the  eyes  of 
the  teacher,  and  still  more  in  writing  without  expert  oversight,  there 


APPENDIX   II  149 

appears  almost  m  all  scholars  a  nearly  irresistible  mania  for  turning 
and  pushing  the  copy-book,  till  the  body  is  twisted  in  a  dangerous 
way  and  assumes  a  posture  which  seems  incredible  when  seen  before 
one  fixed  in  a  photograph.  Some  chi'dren  carry  the  turning  of  the 
copy-book  too  far,  the  direction  of  the  lines  becomes  uncomfortable 
for  the  arm  in  the  normal  posture  of  writing,  the  right  elbow  is  pushed 
on  to  the  desk,  the  right  shoulder  foil  nvs,  moves  forward  and  rises, 
the  body  supports  itself  with  the  right  side  against  the  writing  desk, 
the  spinal  column  is  turned  towards  the  left  about  its  axis  of  length 
and  shows  an  arched  curve  towards  the  right,  while  the  left  arm  en- 
tirely slips  down  from  the  desk,  on  which  only  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  still  find  a  sorry  support.  Others,  and  indeed  the  majority  of 
children,  fall  into  the  opposite  fault,  the  copy-book  is  placed  only 
slightly  oblique,  and  therefore  pushed  so  much  the  further  towards  the 
right,  while  the  bodily  distortions  characteristic  of  right  positions  now 
show  themselves. 

This,  then,  is  the  most  serious  hygienic  disadvantage  of  Sloping 
Writing,—  and  there  is  absolutely  no  way  of  obviating  it, — that  it 
allows  the  children  to  abandon  the  oblique  middle  position  recom- 
mended by  Berlin,  with  moderate  turning  of  the  copy-book  of  3O°-4O°, 
in  which  the  posture,  though  worse  than  in  Vertical  Writing,  is  at  any 
rate  tolerable,  and  to  assume  middle  positions  in  which  the  copy-book 
is  turned  through  much  too  great  an  angle,  together  with  any  degree 
of  right  position  they  choose,  with  all  conceivable  bodily  distortions. 
Perpendicular  Writing,  on  the  other  hand,  can  only  be  produced  in 
straight  middle-position,  and  so  gives  a  guarantee  that  the  children 
will  be  preserved  in  the  preparation  of  their  home-lessons  also  from 
the  bad  cramped  postures  which  threaten  health  in  so  many  ways. 
The  Hygiene  of  the  home-work  forms  an  exceedingly  important 
section  of  school  organization,  but  lies,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  to  a 
great  extent  beyond  our  influence. 

We  are  deprived  of  the  possibility  of  securing  for  the  child  in  its 
parents'  house,  good  light,  a  writing-desk  suited  to  its  stature,  and  a 
well-ventilated  room  ;  and  all  that  school  hygiene  has  up  to  the  present 
been  able  to  do  in  favour  of  the  home-lessons  has  been  limited, 
besides  quantative  restriction  of  them,  to  the  improvement  of  the 
printing.  We  ought  to  gladly  and  vigorously  take  hold  of  the  new 
and  exceedingly  important  handle  which  Vertical  Writing  offers  for 
hygienic  regulation  of  the  writing-posture  in  the  parent's  house  ;  in  it 
I  see  by  far  the  most  essential  advantage  of  Perpendicular  Writing. 

Though  Sloping  Writing  be  encompassed  with  well-intentioned 
and  carefully  thought  out  regulations  as  to  the  position  of  the  copy- 
book and  the  posture  in  writing  which  must  be  maintained,  it  will 


I5Q  MANUAL   OF    HANDWRITING 

never  be  possible- to"  attain  a  certainty  or  even  any  probability  that 
the  children  \vi  1  remember  these  precepts  when  writing  without 
supervision.  Slopirg  Writing,  aoid  this  is  its  fundamental  fault,  can 
be  written  in  many  different  posture?,  and  by  preference  in  the  most 
distorted  of  all  ;.  Vertical.  Writing,  however,  possesses  a  kind  of  auto- 
matic-steering,  apparatus,  whereby  it  avoids  bad  sitting  during  writing. 

Let  what  has  been  said  suffice  to  indicate  the  scientific  basis  of 
the  writing  reform  in  its:  main  points.  At  the  present  day,  after  we 
have  accumulated  several  years'  practical  experience  in  schools  with 
regar^l  to  Vertical  Writing,  detailed  investigation  of  many  of  the 
more  Difficult  divisions  of  the  preliminary  inquiry  may  well  be 
"omitted  ;  especially  it  seems  to  me  unnecessary  in  this  place  once 
more  to  enter  into  details  on  the  alleged  law  formulated  by  Berlin  of 
the  rectangular  intersection  of  downstroke  and  eye-base  line,  since 
I  venture  to  consider  it  contradicted  by  numerous  measurements  of 
my  own  which  were  confirmed  by  Schenk,  Daiber,  and  Ausderan,. 
and  since  besides  it  has  no  bearing  whatever  on  the  practical  solution 
of  the  question.  In  our  writing-reform,  as  in  .all  the  departments  of 
Hygiene,  no  matter  how  thoroughly  theory  may  have  prepared  the 
way,  the  decisive  word  is  always  to  be  looked  for  only  from  the  test 
of  practice.  The  eailiest  experiments  in  schools  were  undertaken  in 
Middle  Franconia,  the  ciadle  of  the  Vertical  Writing  question  in  its 
present  form  ;  individual  teachers  of  Fiirth  and  Schwabach  have  now 
been  practising  Vertical  Writing  for  three  years,  those  of  Nuremberg 
for  two  years,  and  what  those  men  say, — who  have  not  employed 
Vertical  Writing  only  cursorily  and  superficially  for  a  few  weeks, 
but  have  used  it  exclusively  in  their  classes  throughout  the  full  school- 
year  from  the  first  stroke  on  the  slate  to  copy-book  writing, — what 
judgment  these  competent  critics  give,  in  this  lies  the  decision  with 
regard  to  Vertical  Writing  as  a  school  writing.  The  teachers  of  our 
district  know  that  these  tests  have  turned  out  exceedingly  favour- 
able. 

Written  reports  trom  the  gentlemen  at  Fiirth  and  Schwabach,  as 
well  as  the  lecture  of  Herr  Wunderlich  at  the  last  Nuremberg  District 
Teachers'  Conference*  allow  me  to  cut  short  my  account  of  the  pro- 
ceedings at  home,  and  the  more  so  as  the  results  obtained  here 
coincide  in  all  essential  points  with  those  collected  abroad.  There  is 
only  one  thing  I  should  like  to  mention,  that  my  photographs  of 
children  writing  vertically  and  obliquely,  which  caused  some. sensation 
here  as  well  as  in  Munich,  show  better  than  many  words  the 
difference  in  the  posture  of  body.  The  objection  raised  from  many 
sides  that  an  attentive  teacher  would  not  allow  such  awkwardness 
even  with  Sloping  Writing,  rests  on  a  complete  misapprehension  of 


APPENDIX   II  151 

the  object  of  these  photographs.     They  ought  by  no  means'  to  raise  a 
complaint  against  the  teacher  of  the  obliquely-writing  children  ;  I  am 
convinced  that  he'at  sight  of  such  a  bad  posture  at  once  interposes 
with   severe   reproof,   that   he   does  this  incessantly  every  day  from 
year's  end  to  year's  end,  and  is  forced  to  do  it'  because  the  children, 
not  by  his  fault,  but  through  the  fault  of  the  oblique  writing,  after  a 
few   minutes    always   wrinkle  up  again  like   moistened   pasteboard. 
What    the  photographs   ought  to  teach    is,   that    the    teachers    in 
obliquely  writing  classes  perform  a  labour  like  that  of  Sisyphus  when : 
they  try  to  train  the  children  to  sit  erect,':that  the  little  ones  only  pull 
themselves  up  by  fits  and  starts  in  consequence  of  the  command,  and' 
almost  only  during  the  time  it  lasts,  and  that  in  the  home-lessons  a' 
picture  such  as  that  represented  presents  itself  without  any  resistance.' 
We  must  really  also  confess  to  ourselves,  quite  in  confidence,  that' 
even  in  the  school,  when  the  teacher  does  not  constantly  preach  "  sit' 
straight,"  when,  following  his  principal  task,  he  buries  himself  in  the 
subject  he  is  teaching,  often  enough  the  photographic  pictures  present' 
themselves.     In  the   taking  of  them  neither  the  children  who  wrote 
vertically  nor  those  who  wrote-obliquely  were  commanded  to  sit  up- 
right, in  order  that  the  conditions  might  resemble  as  much  as  possible 
those  that  exist  in  the  daily  horne-lessons.     That  the  posture  of  the 
former,  therefore,  is  incomparably  better,  is  obvious  from  the  photo- 
graphs. 

It  is  a  matter  for  congratulation  that  the  theoretical  treatises  on 
Vertical  Writing  issuing  from  Middle  Franconia  have  been  tested  also 
in  other  parts  of  Germany  and  caused  practical  experiments  in  many 
classes. 

According  to  informatioryeceived  by  letter  from  Principal   ScharrF 
at  Flensburg,  in  May  1889  the  Prussian  Government  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein  issued  through  the  district  School-  inspectorate  a  circular  in 
which  it  was  required  that  in  writing  the  -angle  of  elevation  of  the 
characters  should  amount  to  not  less  than  70°.     By  this  enactment  the 
authorities  in  Schleswig  seem  desirous  of  finally  doing  away  with  the' 
excessive  obliquity  of  45°  which  has  hitherto  been  generally  demanded. 
At  ScharfPs  suggestion  the  teachers  of  Flensburg  went  a  step  further' 
still,  and   after   the   above-named   teacher   had   first   had   one   class ' 
writing  vertically    since    December    1 888,    in    June    1889   introduced 
Perpendicular  Writing  into  most  of  the  public  schools.     At  the  close'- 
of  the  school  year  ScharfT  declared  in  a  lecture  that  the  bodily  posture  } 
in  Perpendicular  Writing  is  an  unconstrained  one,  does  not  hinder  ^ 
the  writing-activity,  and  is  employed  by  the  scholars  in  their  borne- J 
lessons  also.     Perpendicular  Writing,  he  said,  by  its  superior  clearness 
most   perfectly  accomplishes  the  object  of  writing,  and  is  easiest  to- 


152  MANUAL  OF   HANDWRITING 

learn,  since  the  child  brings  the  idea  of  the  perpendicular  direction 
with  him  into  the  school,  and  since  this  idea  can  here  at  any  time 
be  easily  rectified  by  reference  to  perpend  cular  walls,  doors,  etc., 
which  is  not  the  case  with  any  other  angle  of  elevation. 

In  a  writing  competition  which  Scharff  instituted  between  his 
scholars  and  those  of  an  equally  high  class  in  another  school,  it  was 
found  that  at  least  as  great  rapidity  was  attained  with  Perdendicular 
Writing  as  with  sloping.  His  best  scholar  required  twenty-four 
minutes  to  copy  a  poem,  the  best  among  the  rivals  thirty  minutes. 

In  December  1889  the  "  Schleswig-Holstein  School  News"  con- 
tained the  following  intelligence  from  Flensburg  :  "  The  enactment  of 
"  the  Imperial  Government,  concerning  the  less  oblique  position  of 
"  the  letters  in  writing,  has  led  to  an  experiment  being  made  here  with 
"  Perpendicular  Writing,  the  results  of  which  up  to  the  present  may 
"  be  described  as  favourable  almost  beyond  expectation." 

Vertical  Writing  has  attained  prominent  importance  in  Vienna, 
where  Principal  Emmanuel  Bayr  has  adopted  it  with  great  success. 
His  first  experiments  began  in  April  1889,  with  from  three  to  four 
children  in  each  of  the  five  lower  classes,  while  the  others  wrote  in 
oblique  middle-position,  in  which  the  prescribed  angle  of  inclination 
of  the  head  was  marked  on  the  writing-desk. 

Afterwards,  in  the  District  Teachers'  Coherence  of  the  sixth 
Vienna  Communal  District,  Bayr  delivered  a  lecture  on  the  result  of 
his  experiments,  in  which  he  very  decidedly  advocated  Vertical 
Writing,  relying  on  a  critique  by  Herr  Toldt,  Prof,  of  Anatomy,  which 
appeared  in  print  in  Bayr's  pamphlet  entitled  "  The  Vertical  Roman 
Style  of  Writing,"  and  contains  a  critical  sifting  of  the  reasons 
adduced  by  authors  for  and  against  Perpendicular  Writing,  with  the 
result  that  Vertical  Writing  is  given  the  preference  on  account  of  its 
favourable  influence  on  an  erect  posture  of  body.  Bayr  as  well  as 
Toldt,  and  with  them  the  whole  subsequent  reform-movement  in 
Vienna,  put  forward  at  the  same  time  the  demand  that  the  so-called 
German  Current  Hand  should  be  abandoned  and  be  replaced  by  the 
Roman  character.  The  Middle  Franconia  Medical  Council,  as  is 
well-known,  has  thought  it  more  desirable  not  to  connect  the  question 
of  the  Roman  character  with  that  of  Vertical  Writing. 

In  the  autumn  of  1889  Bayr  began  to  employ  Vertical  Writing  to 
a  greater  extent  in  the  public  school  of  five  classes  which  is  under  his 
control.  Both  parallel  courses  of  the  first  school-year,  and  also  one 
parallel  course  of  the  second  class,  wrote  vertically,  while  the  other 
course  wrote  obliquely  in  oblique  middle-position  (according  to 
Berlin)  as  hitherto  ;  similarly  in  the  third  class.  In  the  fourth  and 
fifth  class  individual  scholars  wrote  perpendicularly,  the  others 


APPENDIX   II  153 

obliquely  in  oblique  middle-position.  Principal  Mock,  too,  began 
with  Vertical  Writing  in  the  first  class  of  his  public  school,  as  also 
some  first  classes  in  the  ninth  district.  At  Bayr's  request  these 
experimental  classes  were  repeatedly  visited  during  the  past  school 
year  by  the  most  prominent  educationalists  of  Vienna,  as  well  as  by 
medical  authorities,  who,  according  to  intelligence  received  by  letter 
from  Bayr,  all  without  exception  were  convinced  of  the  hygienic 
superiority  of  Vertical  Writing  and  have  since  then  for  the  most  part 
themselves  actively  led  the  way  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing.  For 
example,  on  the  9th  of  April  a  commission,  consisting  of  the  District 
School  Inspector  Herr  Fellner,  Principal  George  Ernst,  and  several 
teachers,  inspected  Bayr's  schools  ;  in  the  fifth  class  the  vertically 
writing  children  were  required  to  place  their  copy-book  obliquely  and 
to  write  obliquely  :  "  The  children  now  wrote  obliquely,  and  their 
"  fine  posture  vanished  ;  they  sat  badly  ;  nothing  more  was  to  be 
"  seen  of  a  straight  bodily  posture.  But  when  ordered  to  place  their 
"  copy-book  straight  again  and  to  write  vertically,  they  sat  as  straight 
"as  a  rush."  On  the  iQth  of  April  Prof.  Fuchs,  the  Vienna 
ophthalmologist,  spent  two  hours  in  Bayr's  school.  In  the  first  verti- 
cally writing  class  he  found  a  model  posture  and  clear  writing.  In 
the  case  of  one  child  the  eyes  were  found  to  be  32  c.m.  distant 
from  the  writing.  In  the  other  cases  no  measurement  was  made, 
because  it  was  seen  that  the  distance  was  approximately  the  same. 
In  the  obliquely-writing  course  of  the  second  school-year  Prof.  Fuchs 
found,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  oblique  middle-position  was  enjoined, 
some  children  writing  with  straight  right-position.  The  governess,  on 
being  questioned,  explained  that  the  children  always  abandoned  the 
oblique  position  in  spite  of  admonitions. 

"Prof.  Fuchs  now  observed  the  chi'dien  who  had  their  copy- 
"  book  placed  in  the  way  required  by  Berlin  and  Remboldt.  These 
"  children  sat  badly,  like  the  rest."  In  the  fifth  class  some  wrote 
vertically,  others  obliquely.  ..."  Of  those  who  wrote  vertically  only 
"  one  out  of  about  twenty  sat  badly,  of  the  obliquely- writing  children 
"  the  majority.  .  .  .  At  his  request  the  children  were  colectively  asked 
"  before  the  writing  to  sit  straight,  but  only  the  vertically  writing  suc- 
"  ceeded  in  this."  .  .  .  "The  following  direction  was  now  given  to  the 
"  children  :  '  All  write  as  quickly  as  you  possibly  can.'  .  .  .  The 
"  vertically-writing  were  ready  simultaneously  with  the  obliquely- 
"  writing  children,  and  no  difference  as  regards  rapidity  was  apparent." 
Prof.  Fuchs  found  that  the  perpendicular  writing  was  clearer  than 
tne  oblique.  One  vertically-writing  female  pupil  attracted  his  atten- 
tion by  her  bad  way  of  sitting ;  it  turned  out  that  the  child  had  only 
been  writing  vertically  for  three  days.  The  results  in  the  other  classes 


154  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

were  similar.  Prof.  Fuchs  has  meanwhile  published  in  the  "  New 
Free  Press"  (morning  edition,  2oth  May,  5th  year)  an  article  in  favour 
of  Vertical  Writing,  in  which  among  other  things  he  says  that  the 
expectation  that  Sloping  Writing  in  oblique  middle  position  must 
allow  an  equally  good  bodily  posture  as  Vertical  Writing  in  straight 
middle-position  has  not  been  fulfilled.  "  Theoretically  the  two  ways 
"  of  writing  should  be  almost  equivalent,  and  both  ought  to  be  capable 
"of  being  produced  with  equal  ease  in  the  correct  posture  of  body. 

"  But  all  theory  is  vague  ;  of  this  our  recent  school-visit  ought  to 
"'have  convinced  us." 

The  Middle  Franconia  Medical  Council  is  well  acquainted  with  the 
fact  that  the  author  as  early  as  1880  had  declared  the  oblique  middle- 
position  incompatible  in  the  long  run  with  an  erect  posture  in  sitting, 
on  theoretical  grounds,  and  on  account  of  the  necessity  of  pursuing 
the  obliquely  rising  line  with  the  eye.  On  the  loth  of  May  Bayr  re- 
ceived a  visit  from  Max  Gruber,  Professor  of  Hygiene,  who  delivered 
a  ccture  at  the  next  sitting  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  Health  on  the 
very  favourable  impression  which  the  posture  in  Vertical  Writing 
made  upon  him,  and  moved  that  a  commission  be  entrusted  with  the 
testing  of  Vertical  Writing. 

Accordingly  Herr  Albert,  Court  Councillor,  Professor  Gruber,  and 
Dr.  von  Wiedersperg  from  the  Supreme  Council  of  Health,  and  also 
Pr.f.  E.  Fuchs,  Prof,  von  Reuss  and  Prof.  Lorenz  were  named  extra- 
oidinary  members  of  this  commission,  which  then  on  the  4th  of  June, 
vi  h  the  accession  of  Dr.  Immanuel  Kusy,  Ministerial  Councillor  and 
Sn-iitary  Adviser  in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  inspected  the  verti- 
cal'y-writing  children  in  Bayr's  school  and  expressed  themselves  in 
terms  of  praise.  Meanwhile,  however,  as  the  "Journal  of  Education 
and  Instruction"  (No.  8,  2nd  year)  informs  us,  Herr  Albert,  Court 
Councillor,  has  already  in  his  lectures  declared  for  Vertical  Writing. 

In  July,  Vertical  Writing  with  the  Roman  character  stood  on 
the  order  of  the  day  of  the  tenth  Vienna  District  Teachers'  Confer- 
ence. 

The  speakers  had  all  taken  an  opportunity  either  of  testing  Vertical 
Writing  themselves  in  their  own  classes  or  of  studying  it  with  Bayr. 
Theses  were  heard  at  all  the  conferences  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing} 
and  were  accepted,  with  exception  of  the  tenth  district,  where  the 
thesis  on  Vertical  Writing  was  defeated  by  66  votes  against  62. 

Finally  a  few  more  reports  received  by  letter  on  Bayr's  vertically- 
writing  classes  may  be  mentioned.  Principal  Bayr  says  with  regard 
to  the  experiments  in  the  fifth  class,  part  of  which  writes  perpendicularly} 
part  obliquely  (with  oblique  middle-position)  :  "  The  governess  lays 
"  great  stress  on  the  erect  nosture  of  the  children." 


APPENDIX    II  155 

At  the  beginning  the  children  all  sit  straight.  To  the  specialist, 
however,  even  at  the  outset,  the  straight  posture  of  the  vertically- 
writing  children  is  remarkable  ;  th'e  others  lose  this  fine  erect  posture 
at  the  first  stroke  which  they  make  obliquely.  After  the  lapse  of  three 
minutes  the  sloping  writers  will  fall  together  (collapse).  After  ten 
minutes  they  assume  the  most  peculiar  posture,  after  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  their  head  is  scarcely  12  to  I4c.m.  distant.  The  vertically- 
writing  children  remain  sitting  straight  during  the  whole  writing  lesson, 
and  in  as  good  a  posture  as  at  the  beginning.  Usually  after  four  to 
five  minutes  the  stranger  can  distinguish  all  those  who  wrote  vertically 
from  behind  without  having  seen  the  writing.  Dr.  Aloys  Karpf, 
Custodian  of  the  Imperial  and  Royal  Trust  Commission  Library, 
writes  :  "To-day  I  had  an  opportunity,  along  with  Principal  Francis 
"  Zdarsky  and  Teacher  H.  Saik,  of  observing  the  progress  in  this  way 
"  of  writing  among  the  children  in  several  classes  of  Principal  Immanuel 
"  Bayr's  school.  It  was  observed  that  the  posture  of  the  children,  on 
"  each  of  the  many  times  they  set  themselves  to  write,  was,  with 
"  astonishingly  few  exceptions,  a  model  one.  The  advantage  of  the 
"  endeavour  to  attain  such  a  posture  cannot,  from  the  standpoint  oi 
"  school  hygiene,  be  sufficiently  often  emphasised.  Attempts  to  make 
"  the  children  write  rapidly  in  this  way  succeeded  to  the  particular 
"  satisfaction  of  Principal  Zdarsky,  who  attached  special  importance 
"  to  this  point.  To  judge  by  the  experiments,  especially  in  the  first 
*  class,  I  am  disposed  to  adopt  the  psychologically  explicable  assump- 
"  tion  that  more  pleasing  forms  are  more  quickly  attained  with  those 
"  children  who  begin  at  once  with  Vertical  Writing  than  with  those 
"  who  are  urged  to  Vertical  Writing  only  when  already  practised  in 
"  the  sloping  writing." 

Caroline  Seidl,  city  governess,  who  teaches  under  Bayr  in  the  fifth 
writing  class  (mixed)  reports  :  "  The  female  pupils  of  the  fifth  class 
"  were  introduced  to  Vertical  Writing  only  at  the  beginning  of  the 
"school  year  1889-1890.  The  transition  from  the  Sloping  Writing 
"  practised  during  four  years  to  Vertical  Writing  involved  not  the  least 
"  difficulty  for  the  children  in  respect  to  the  posture  of  body,  hold- 
"  ing  of  pen,  or  technical  execution.  It  was  also  an  easy  thing  for 
"  them  on  command  to  pass  from  Vertical  Writing  at  once  back  again 
"  to  Sloping  Writing.  .  .  . 

"...  All  the  children  who  were  introduced  to  Vertical  Writing 
"afforded,  in  respect  to  faultless  sitting  and  caligraphy,  thoroughly 
"  satisfactory  and  frequently  even  surprising  results.  ...  On  com- 
"  paring  the  writing  of  a  copy-book  in  which  the  writing  was  first 
"  sloping  and  later  vertical,  one  could  perceive  with  satisfaction  how 
"  much  prettier  and  more  regular  an  impression  was  made*  on  the  be- 


156  MANUAL   OF   HANDWRITING 

"holder  by  the  Vertical  Writing  as  contrasted  with  the  Sloping 
"  Writing.  What  a  salutary  tranquil  look  a  vertically  writing  class 
"  keeps,  what  a  restless  spirit  prevails  among  a  number  of  obliquely 
"writing  scholars  with  the  constant  change  of  the  posture  of  the  body 
"  and  position  of  the  copy-book  which  can  never  be  completely  kept 
"  in  check  even  with  the  most  attentive  supervision.  This  year  I  have 
"  made  repeated  experiments  in  regard  to  the  point  just  mentioned, 
"  with  the  female  scholars  of  the  fifth  class.  In  respect  to  rapidity  of 
"  execution,  too,  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  kind  of  hindrance 
"  in  the  use  of  Vertical  Writing  ;  there  were,  indeed,  many  sloping 
"  writers  who  could  not  follow  the  vertical  writers.  When  compared 
"  these  rapid  writings  show  a  great  difference  in  respect  to  their  clcar- 
"  ness  and  legibility,  which  decided  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing." 

From  the  remaining  parts  of  Austria  also  come  reports  as  to  the 
growing  interest  in  the  question  of  Vertical  Writing,  which  am  ng 
Others  has  been  discussed  at  the  District  Teachers'  Conferences  of 
Schwanenstadt  in  Austria,  of  Egydi-Tunnel  in  Styria,  and  of  Salzburg. 

The  educational  literature  of  Austria  is  much  occupied  with  Vertical 
Writing  ;  see  for  example  Rieger's  "  Journal  for  the  Austrian  Public 
School  System,"  1890,  Nos.  8  and  n.  "The  Public  School,"  3cth 
year,  Nos.  24  and  26.  "  The  Lower  Austria  School  News,"  3rd  year, 
No.  22.  "The  Journal  of  Education  and  Instruction,"  4th  year,  No.  8. 
In  Buda-Pesth,  Prof.  Joseph  Fador  advocates  the  introduction  of 
Vertical  Writing.  In  Hamburg  also  on  the  initiative  of  Dr.  Kotel- 
mann  Vertical  Writing  was  experimentally  introduced  into  a  higher 
girls'-school.  In  Antwerp  Vertical  Writing  is  recommended  by  Dr. 
Mayer,  school  doctor  ("  The  Female  Teachers'  Guardian,"  ist  year 
No.  6,  p.  13).  For  a  series  of  years  Dierckx'  writing  has  been  prac- 
tised in  Brussels  ;  though  not  quite  perpendicu'ar,  it  is  at  any  rate 
steep  and  only  inclined  about  15°  towards  the  right.  With  it  the 
children  maintain  a  hygienic  posture,  as  has  been  recently  boasted 
again  by  Dr.  von  Sallwurck,  Member  of  the  Council  of  Education 
("Journal  of  School  Hyiene,"  1890,  No.  I,  p.  56).  In  France,  as  was 
evident  at  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  in  Vienna  1887  and 
in  Paris  1889,  there  prevails  the  most  gratifying  unanimity  on  the  part 
of  all  the  authorities  of  public  hygiene  in  favour  of  Vertical  Writing. 

With  gratifying  unanimity  the  experiments  made  in  the  most 
diverse  parts  of  Germany  show  that  Vertical  W7riting  quite  materially 
improves  the  posture  of  the  children,  that  it  allows  the  degree  of 
rapidity  required  in  the  school  and  quite  sufficient  for  the  preponde- 
rating majority  of  callings,  is  in  case  of  need  easy  to  convert  into 
Sloping  Writing,  surpasses  the  latter  in  clearness  and  offers  besides 
many  kin^s  of  educational  advantages. 


APPENDIX   II  157 

It  is  my  firm  conviction  that  Vertical  Writing  when  generally  in* 
troduced  does  not  burden  the  teachers,  as  many  believe,  with  a  new 
and  difficult  work,  but  on  the  contrary  quite  materially  lightens  for 
them  the  very  heavy  and  rather  thankless  labour  of  constant  exhorta* 
tions  to  a  better  bodily  posture,  and  gains  them  time  and  strength  for 
working  at  their  principal  task,  education  and  instruction.  I  trust  that 
a  not  too  distant  future  will  confirm  this  prophecy. 


APPENDIX    III 

MR.  ADAMS  FROST  examined  a  Board  School  in  London  and  found 
therein  among  267  scholars,  73,  or  27-3  per  cent,  with  sub-normal 
vision. 

The  (Philadelphia)  Report  explains  that  while  some  of  .the  classes 
in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools  had  had  hygienic  surroundings 
and  in  the  grammar  schools  the  arrangements  were  not  of  the  best, 
in  the  normal  schools  the  greatest  possible  care  had  been  given  to  the 
lighting  and  seating  of  the  classrooms  with  the  result  of  making  them 
as  nearly  perfect  as  possible  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  requirements.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  and  of  the  fact  that  the  pupils 
were  much  older  and  therefore  less  susceptible  to  unfavourable  circum- 
stances "  The  showing  for  myopic  eyes  was  almost  as  bad  as  in 
"  the  lower  schools." 

(R.  Brudenell  Carter  F.R.C.S.,  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  St.  George's 
Hospital — Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  April  25  and  May  2,  1885.) 

Shortsightedness  is  developed  almost  exclusively  during  School- 
life  ;  rarely  afterwards  and  very  rarely  before  that  time.  Is  this  coin- 
cidence of  time  accidental  ?— i.e.  does  the  shortsightedness  arise  at  the 
period  about  which  children  go  to  school  ?  or  has  school-life  caused 
the  shortsightedness  ?  Statistical  enquiries  prove  the  latter  to  be  the 
case. 

The  well-known  orthopaedic  surgeon  Eulenburg  also  states  that 
90  per  cent  of  curvatures  of  the  spine  which  do  not  arise  from  a  special 
disease  are  developed  during  school-life. 

These  statements  have  particularly  struck  me  as  coinciding  exactly 
with  the  period  of  the  development  of  shortsightedness  and  I  have 
paid  the  more  attention  to  this  relation  between  spinal  curvature  and 
shortsightedness  as  they  seem  to  form  a  circulus  vitiosus  in  so  far  as 
shortsightedness  produces  spinal  curvature,  and  curvature  favours 
shortsightedness. 


'158  MANUAL  OF  -HANDWRITING 

The  frequency  of  the  so-called  scoliosis  or  lateral  curvature  of  the 
spine  has  its  principal  origin  in  the  position  in  which  the  children  sit 
during  their  school  time  especially  while  writing. 

But  what  now  is  the  normal  posture  ?  The  upper  part  of  the  body 
is  to  be  kept  straight,  the  vertebral  column  neither  twisted  to  the  right 
nor  to  the  left  ;  the  shoulder-blades  both  of  the  same  height,  are, 
together  with  the  upper  arm,  freely  suspended  on  the  ribs,  and  in  no 
way  supporting  the  body  ;  both  elbows  on  a  level  with  each  other  and 
almost  perpendicular  under  the  shoulder-joint  without  any  support ; 
only  the  hands  and  part  of  the  forearms  resting  on  the  table  ;  the 
weight  of  the  head  freely  balanced  on  the  vertebral  column  and  not 
on  any  account  bent  forward,  but  only  turned  so  much  round  its  hori- 
zontal axis,  that  the  face  is  inclined  sufficiently  to  prevent  the  angle  at 
which  the  eye  is  fixed  on  the  book  from  being  too  pointed. 

(Dr.  R.  Leibrich,  Consulting  Ophthalmic  Surgeon  to  St.  Thomas1 
Hospital.) 

The  twisted  and  curved  position  of  the  spine  caused  by  writing  is 
doubtless  a  very  potent  factor  in  the  production  of  Lateral  Curvature. 
The  more  slanting  the  writing  the  worse  the  position,  and  I  would 
strongly  advise  that  upright  writing  be  universally  substituted  for  the 
slanting  (p.  73). 

The  posture  necessitated  by  ordinary  writing  is  probably  that  which 
causes  more  harm  to  the  spine  than  any  other,  but  the  system  of  up- 
right writing  so  ably  advocated  by  Mr.  Jackson  is  calculated  to  reduce 
this  harm  to  a  minimum.  I  have  referred  to  this  subject  in  another 
part  of  this  volume  but  I  take  this  opportunity  of  advising  the  reader 
to  obtain  Mr.  Jackson's  publications  upon  this  system  of  upright  writing 
with  which  I  have  become  acquainted  only  since  urging  the  advan- 
tages of  substituting  upright  for  slanting  writing  in  the  Second  Edition 
of  this  book. 

(Curvatures  of  the  Spine  by  Noble  Smith,  F.R.C.S.  Ed.,  L.R.C.P. 
Lond.,  &c.  Third  Edition,  pp.  73  and  108.) 


159 


INDEX 


ACTIOLOGY  of  scoliose,  86 
Alphabet,  written,  small  letters,  95 

capital  letters,  96 

Ancient  and  mediaeval  writing,  112 
Angles  of  slope  in  copy  books,  26 
Argument  against  use  of  slates,  76 

BAGINSKY,  Dr. ,  on  Spinal  Curvature, 

86 

Belgian  cabinet  edict,  27 
Blackboard,  criticism  of,  107-8 
—  writing,  57,  61,  107,  108 
Blank  copy  books,  minor  objections 
to,  66 

and  class  teaching,  71 

Blotting  paper,  necessity  of,  80 
Body,  hygienic  position  of,  82 
Bohemian    School    Board's   Instruc- 
tions, 92 

CALIGRAPHIC     merits     of     vertical 

writing,  39 

Caligraphy,  qualities  of  good,  27 
Capitals  (model  alphabet  of),  96 
Catalogue  of  recent  works,  127 
"  City  Press  "  on  writing,  8 
Class    teaching,    general  instructions 

for,  109 

Classes  of  letters,  details  of,  97-100 
Classification  of  capitals,  103 

-  -  small  letters,  96-7 
Compactness,  52 
—  of  vertical  writing,  35 
Comparison  of  lengths  of  outlines,  33 
Congresses  and  Councils,  124 
Continent,   decrees  of  Boards,   etc., 

123 

Continuity  in  writing,  51 
Copy  books,  kinds  of,  56 

shapes  of,  77 

writing  specimens,  4,  40 


DEFECTS  of  blank  books  summarised, 
69 

Delusion  of  slope,  28 
Desks,  kinds  of,  74 

—  widths  of,  75 

'•'  Detroit  Free  Press,"  9 
Diigram  of  eyes,  18,  87 
Diagrams  of  contrasts,  131 

legibility,  28-30 

lengths,  33 

-   positions,  16,  17 
Directions  to  writers,  HO 
Diversity  of  positions,  127 
Drawing  and  writing,  68 

E,  different  forms  of,  54 

Early  Saxon  handwriting,  1 12 

Ease  in  teaching,  36 

Economical  merits  of  vertical  writing, 

39 

Economy  in  space,  34 
Educational  merits  of  vertical  writing, 

39 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  writing  of,  131 
Elizabethan  period  specimens,  132 
Enthusiasm  in  teaching,  106 
Example  of  non-continuity,  51 
Experiments  in  Vienna  schools,  22 
Engraver's  hair  line  models,  55 

FASHION  in  writing,  12 

First  English  sloping  alphabet,  116 

Focus,  perfect  in  vertical  writing,, 

18 

GERMAN  alphabets,  two,  22 

—  cabinet,  edict  of,  27 

—  handwriting,  in 
Government  instructions,  31 

HANDWRITING  and  hygiene,  26 
Headline  copy  books,  56 
Heights  of  long  letters,  54 


i6o 


MANUAL    OF    HANDWRITING 


History  of  vertical  writing,  ill 

How  to  write,  no 

Hygienic  defects  of  sloping  writing, 

14,  158 

—  merits  of  vertical  writing,  38 

IMPERFECT  models,  58 
Ink,  quality  of,  79 
Inspectors,  etc.,  125 
Irregular  models,  62 
Italian  style,  introduced,  ill 

JAVAL,  Dr.,  14,  19,  120 
Jolly,  Inspector,  77 
Junction  of  letters,  51 

KING,  G.  B.,  on  continuity,  51 

LEGIBILITY  of  writing,  27 
Leibrich,  Dr.,  statements  by,  157 
**Locke's  system,  105 
Long  letters,  lengths  of.  54 
Lorenz,  Professor  A.,  opinion,  22 

MINIMUM  of  imitation,  68 
Models  or  copies,  60 
Movement  on  Continent,  1 1 8,  119 
Mulhauser's  method,  104 
Multum  in  parvo,  IIO 
Myopia  and  sloping  writing,  19,  87 
—  blackboard  copies   67 

NELSON,   Lord,    writing   of,  in  two 

styles,  133 

Norman  handwriting,  in 
Nuremburg,  lecture  at,  142 

OPHTHALMOLOGY  and  vertical  writ- 
ing, 19 

Ornamental  penmanship,  94 
Orthopaedics  and  vertical  writing,  22 
Other  merits  of  vertical  writing,  37 

PENS  and  penholders,  80 
Perpendicular     writing     in    schools, 

142 
Position  in  vertical  writing,  16,  17 

—  of  copy  books,  84 
the  pen,  90 

QUALITIES  of  good  writing,  27 
REPRODUCTION  of  pupils'  copies,  59 


R,  variations  in  form  of,  53 
Report  of  Vienna  Commission,  19 
Resolution  of  London  Congress,  1 8 
Reuss,  Professor  A.,  opinion  of,  19 
Revival  of  vertical  writing,  117 

S,  different  forms  of,  54 

Scharff,  Dr.,  Flensberg,  151 

Schenk,  Dr.,  on  scoliosis,  86 

Sc'  olars'  writing,  specimens  of,  134 

Schubert,  Dr.,  experiments  of,  48 

—  his  researches,  23 

—  lecture  by,  142 

"  Secretary"  letters  or  alphabet,  Il6 
Seidl,  Miss  Caroline,  letter  of,  121 
Shapes  of  certain  letters,  53 
Shortsighted  pupils.  67 
Shortsightedness,  157 
Size  of  writing,  48 
Slates,  evils  of,  76 

—  use  of,  76 

Sloping  writing,  specimens  of,  4,  131 
Smith,  Dr.  Noble,  statement  by,  158 
Specialists  and  educationists,  124 
Specimens  of  vertical  writing,  40 
Speed  of  vertical  writers,  32,  34,  153 

writing,  31 

Spinal  curvature  and  sloping  writing, 
19,  86,  158 

TABLE  of  merits  of  vertical  writing,  38 

Teacher's  objection,  21 

Temporary  models,  65 

Thickness  of  writing,  50 

Tritton,  Mr. ,  at  the  Mansion  House,  8 

UNGRADED  MODELS,  64 

VARYING  angles  of  slope,  26 
Vertical  writing,  a  specific,  14 

—  —  revival  of,  117 
Vienna,  Council,  I  54 

WHOLE-ARM  movement,  49 
Writer's  cramp,  38,  50 
Writing  and  drawing,  68 

—  Hygiene,  10 

—  as  it  now  is,  I 

—  of  teachers,  60,  72 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Opera- 
tors, 31 


Harison's  Vertical    .    . 
.    .    Penmanship  Pads. 


(PATENT  APPLIED  FOR.) 


The  purpose  of  these  pads  is  to  enable  the  teacher 
to  give  as  much  practice  as  may  be  deemed  necessary 
with  any  particular  set  copy,  the  pupil  writing  one, 
two  or  more  sheets,  if  it  is  thought  advisable  to  do 
so,  before  exposing  a  new  model.  It  is  advisable, 
also,  to  avoid  the  discouragement,  incident  to  failure. 
By  the  use  of  these  pads  failures  may  be  removed, 
and  a  new  copy  sheet  used,  or  several  of  them,  until 
it  is  deemed  advisable  to  proceed  to  the  next  step. 
Pads  will  be  made  to  order  in  any  of  the  different 
rulings  that  may  be  desired  ;  when  not  otherwise 
ordered,  the  double  guide  lines  will  be  furnished  on 
the  first  numbers  of  the  series  only,  single  ruling  on 
the  higher  numbers — the  "finishing"  numbers  to  be 
on  unruled  pads. 

The  copies  are  compiled  from  the  JACKSON 
system  for  the  reason  that  it  is  considered  well  to 
follow  what  has  been  found  best  after  many  years 
experience. 

The  position  considered  best  is  that  assumed  in 
drawing,  viz : — With  the  body  straight  before  the 
desk,  the  copy  slightly  to  the  right  and  set  squarely 
before  the  pupil,  the  pen  held  so  that  both  points  of 
the  nib  are  in  constant  action,  the  pen  handle  inclined 
slightly  away  from  the  direction  of  the  shoulder. 


WILLIAM    BEVERLEY   HARISON, 

59  Fifth  Avenue,  N.  Y.  City. 

SCHOOL  BOOKS   SCHOOL  SUPPLIES 

OF  ALL  PUBLISHERS.  OF  ALL  KINDS. 

"One  Piece  "  Patent  Adjustable  School  Book  Covers. 


One  Piece  Adjustable  Book  Covers, 

WILL  FIT  (WITHOUT  CUTTING)  ANY  SIZED  BOOK. 


»ltMrtmcni  of: 

»f 


.  Q*. 


.  .„,. 


Mr.  William  B.  Harisen, 
3  Bast  14th  Street. 
K«w  York  City, 

Dear  Sir: 

Some  time  since  we  received  at  the  Bureau  a  pacXage  of  yent*  new 
adjustable  book  covers*   You  ask  whether  I  consider  the  device  of  value  for 
public  school  use  as  it  has  been  recommended  on  the  grounds  of  sanitation.   1 
think  that  the  point  is  well  taken, and  the  simplicity  and  ingenuity  of  th« 
device  is  something  astonishing  to  a  person  who  has  often  experimented  on  the 
proper  form  for  a  convenient  book  cover-   It  deserves  to  come  into  general  use 
where  book  covers  are  used* 

'  Very  respectfully, 


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No.  i.     Fits  i6mo.,  I2mo.  or  small  8vo.     -         -        $1.50 


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In  lots  of  1,000  or  more  with  labels. 
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FOREIGNER'S 
MANUAL  OF  ENGLISH 


BY 

H.    F,    CLARKE. 


8vo,  Cloth.    Introduction  Price,  75  Cents. 


IT  is  a  generally  conceded  fact  that  any  language  may 
be  taught  more'  successfully  by  employing  that  lan- 
guage only. 

Gouin  has  demonstrated  that  the  most  direct  method 
is  that  associating  tbe  object  or  action  with  the  spoken 
words,  thus  giving  a  mind  picture  and  leading  to  thought 
in  the  language  to  be  acquired;  also  he  lays  great  stress 
upon  the  systematic  building  up  of  a  vocabulary  by  fre- 
quent repetition  and  use  of  the  simple  words  and  phrases, 
practically  as  a  child  first  learns  to  talk. 

For  the  purpose  of  -teaching  English  to  foreigners, 
especially  where  classes  may  be  composed  of  several  nation- 
alities, as  in  our-large  city  public  schools,  the  want  of  a 
practical  method,  capable  of  being  used  by  an  English 
teacher  has  long  been  felt  It  is  quite  impossible  to  obtain 
teachers  with  sufficient  command  of  the  several  languages, 
as  well  as  English,  to  prepare  the  children  of  our  foreign  pop- 
ulation so  that  they  may  take  their  place  in  the  regular 
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French  Songs  and  Games, 

PER   SET,   5O  CENTS. 

Verbal  Quartettes, 


PER   SET,   5O   CENTS. 


By  ALICE  WERNER  STEINBRECHER. 


The   aim   of    the   FRENCH   SONGS   AND   GAMES   is   to 

amuse  and  at  the  some  time   familiarize    pupils  with 

the  niceties  of  French  pronunciation.      The  songs 

and  many  of   the  games  are  with  music  and 

are  a    careful    selection    from    the    most 

popular  in  use  in  Paris. 

"VERBAL   QUARTETTES"  is  a  game   to    be   played  in 

French    German    or  English,  for    the  purpose  of 

promoting  conversation  in  either  language; 

it  is  similar  to  the  game  of 

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